Fetching the paper…
Reading the bibliography…
Plaintiffs and defendants in copyright lawsuits over generative AI often make sweeping, opposing claims about the extent to which large language models (LLMs) memorize protected expression from books in their training data.
La mécanique statique et l’irréversibilité
Émile Borel · 1913
Earlier work this paper cites.
Ulysses
James Joyce · 1922
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Great Gatsby
F. Scott Fitzgerald · 1925
Earlier work this paper cites.
Orlando
Virginia Woolf · 1928
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Hobbit
J.R.R. Tolkien · 1937
Earlier work this paper cites.
Nineteen-Eighty Four
George Orwell · 1949
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Myth of Sisyphus
Albert Camus · 1955
Earlier work this paper cites.
Catch-22
Joseph Heller · 1961
Earlier work this paper cites.
Tree and Leaf
J.R.R. Tolkien · 1964
Earlier work this paper cites.
(“a work is not derivative unless it has been substantially copied from the prior work.”)
Litchfield v. Spielberg, 736 F.2d 1352, 1357 (9th Cir. 1984) · 1984
Earlier work this paper cites.
M. Butterfly
David Henry Hwang · 1988
Earlier work this paper cites.
Sega Enters. Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992), as amended (Jan. 6, 1993)
1993
Earlier work this paper cites.
(“This is a thousand monkeys working at a thousand typewriters. Soon they’ll have written the greatest novel known to man . . . [l]et’s see. ’It was the best of times, it was the blurst of times?’ You stupid monkey!”)
The Simpsons: Last Exit to Springfield (Fox television broadcast Mar. 11, 1993), 1993 · 1993
Earlier work this paper cites.
A Game of Thrones
George R.R. Martin · 1996
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Diamond Age
Neal Stephenson · 1996
Earlier work this paper cites.
Golden Child
David Henry Hwang · 1998
Earlier work this paper cites.
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
J.K. Rowling · 1998
Earlier work this paper cites.
Trying to Find Chinatown
David Henry Hwang · 1999
Earlier work this paper cites.
All the Onions
Betty E.M. Jacobs · 1999
Earlier work this paper cites.
Sony Computer Ent., Inc. v. Connectix Corp., 203 F.3d 596 (9th Cir. 2000)
2000
Earlier work this paper cites.
Sam the Cat
Matthew Klam · 2001
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Path of Minor Planets
Andrew Sean Greer · 2002
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Da Vinci Code
Dan Brown · 2003
Earlier work this paper cites.
Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom
Cory Doctorow · 2003
Earlier work this paper cites.
CoStar Grp., Inc. v. LoopNet, Inc., 373 F.3d 544 (4th Cir. 2004)
2004
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Confessions of Max Tivoli
Andrew Sean Greer · 2005
Earlier work this paper cites.
Twilight
Stephenie Meyer · 2005
Earlier work this paper cites.
Dante and the Origins of Italian Literary Culture
Teodolinda Barolini · 2006
Earlier work this paper cites.
Killer Instinct
Joseph Finder · 2006
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao
Junot Díaz · 2007
Earlier work this paper cites.
Poison Ink
Christopher Golden · 2008
Earlier work this paper cites.
After Tupac and D Foster
Jacqueline Woodson · 2008
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It
Jonathan Zittrain · 2008
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Beautiful Struggle
Ta-Nehisi Coates · 2009
Cited alongside, same era.
Sandman Slim: A Novel
Richard Kadrey · 2009
Cited alongside, same era.
17 U.S. Code § 503 - Remedies for infringement: Impounding and disposition of infringing articles, December 2010
Copyright Law of the United States · 2010
Cited alongside, same era.
Blood Oath
Christopher Farnsworth · 2010
Cited alongside, same era.
The Bedwetter
Sarah Silverman · 2010
Cited alongside, same era.
Elizabeth Taylor
David Bret · 2011
Cited alongside, same era.
The President’s Vampire
Christopher Farnsworth · 2011
Cited alongside, same era.
Deduplicating Training Data Makes Language Models Better
Katherine Lee, Daphne Ippolito, Andrew Nystrom, Chiyuan Zhang, Douglas Eck, Chris Callison-Burch, and Nicholas Carlini · 2022
Later among the works it cites.
Introducing 100K Context Windows, May 2023
Anthropic · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Pythia: A suite for analyzing large language models across training and scaling
Stella Biderman, Hailey Schoelkopf, Quentin Gregory Anthony, Herbie Bradley, Kyle O’Brien, Eric Hallahan, Mohammad Aflah Khan, Shivanshu Purohit, USVSN Sai Prashanth, Edward Raff, et al · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Report of the 1st Workshop on Generative AI and Law
A. Feder Cooper, Katherine Lee, James Grimmelmann, Daphne Ippolito, Christopher Callison-Burch, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Niloofar Mireshghallah, Miles Brundage, David Mimno, Madiha Zahrah Choksi, Jack M. Balkin, Nicholas Carlini, Christopher De Sa, Jonathan Frankle, Deep Ganguli, Bryant Gipson, Andres Guadamuz, Swee Leng Harris, Abigail Z. Jacobs, Elizabeth Joh, Gautam Kamath, Mark Lemley, Cass Matthews, Christine McLeavey, Corynne McSherry, Milad Nasr, Paul Ohm, Adam Roberts, Tom Rubin, Pamela Samuelson, Ludwig Schubert, Kristen Vaccaro, Luis Villa, Felix Wu, and Elana Zeide · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
alphaXiv searches the wider corpus for related work and actual follow-ups.
alphaXiv is searching for related work…
Aloha from Hell
Richard Kadrey · 2011
Cited alongside, same era.
The Making of a Mediterranean Emirate
Ramzi Rouighi · 2011
Cited alongside, same era.
(holding that class certification was inappropriate because commonality requires that class members be capable of showing that they have suffered the same injury)
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes, 564 U.S. 338, 349–50 (2011) · 2011
Cited alongside, same era.
Dungeons and Dragons and Philosophy
Jon Cogburn · 2012
Cited alongside, same era.
Unglued: Making Wise Choices in the Midst of Raw Emotions
Lysa TerKeurst · 2012
Cited alongside, same era.
Peter Henderson, Xuechen Li, Dan Jurafsky, Tatsunori Hashimoto, Mark A. Lemley, and Percy Liang · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
No. 3:23-cv-03417 (N.D. Cal. July 7, 2023)
Kadrey v. Meta Platforms, Inc · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Scalable Extraction of Training Data from (Production) Language Models
Milad Nasr, Nicholas Carlini, Jonathan Hayase, Matthew Jagielski, A. Feder Cooper, Daphne Ippolito, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Eric Wallace, Florian Tramèr, and Katherine Lee · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
These 183,000 Books Are Fueling the Biggest Fight in Publishing and Tech
Alex Reisner · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Generative AI meets copyright
Pamela Samuelson · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Counterfactual memorization in neural language models
Chiyuan Zhang, Daphne Ippolito, Katherine Lee, Matthew Jagielski, Florian Tramèr, and Nicholas Carlini · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Marah Abdin, Jyoti Aneja, Harkirat Behl, Sébastien Bubeck, Ronen Eldan, Suriya Gunasekar, Michael Harrison, Russell J. Hewett, Mojan Javaheripi, Piero Kauffmann, James R. Lee, Yin Tat Lee, Yuanzhi Li, Weishung Liu, Caio C. T. Mendes, Anh Nguyen, Eric Price, Gustavo de Rosa, Olli Saarikivi, Adil Salim, Shital Shah, Xin Wang, Rachel Ward, Yue Wu, Dingli Yu, Cyril Zhang, and Yi Zhang · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
The Work of Copyright in the Age of Machine Production, January 2024
Oren Bracha · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
The Files are in the Computer: Copyright, Memorization, and Generative AI
A. Feder Cooper and James Grimmelmann · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Machine Unlearning Doesn’t Do What You Think: Lessons for Generative AI Policy, Research, and Practice
A. Feder Cooper, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Miranda Bogen, Matthew Jagielski, Katja Filippova, Ken Ziyu Liu, Alexandra Chouldechova, Jamie Hayes, Yangsibo Huang, Niloofar Mireshghallah, Ilia Shumailov, Eleni Triantafillou, Peter Kairouz, Nicole Mitchell, Percy Liang, Daniel E. Ho, Yejin Choi, Sanmi Koyejo, Fernando Delgado, James Grimmelmann, Vitaly Shmatikov, Christopher De Sa, Solon Barocas, Amy Cyphert, Mark Lemley, danah boyd, Jennifer Wortman Vaughan, Miles Brundage, David Bau, Seth Neel, Abigail Z. Jacobs, Andreas Terzis, Hanna Wallach, Nicolas Papernot, and Katherine Lee · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Generative AI, Plagiarism, and Copyright Infringement in Legal Documents
Amy B. Cyphert · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
DeepSeek LLM: Scaling Open-Source Language Models with Longtermism, 2024
DeepSeek-AI et al · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Gemini 1.5: Unlocking multimodal understanding across millions of tokens of context
Gemini Team, Nikolay Savinov, Denis Teplyashin, Dmitry Lepikhin, Timothy Lillicrap, Jean-baptiste Alayrac, Radu Soricut, Angeliki Lazaridou, Orhan Firat, Julian Schrittwieser, et al · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
The Llama 3 Herd of Models, 2024
Aaron Grattafiori et al · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Talkin’ ’Bout AI Generation: Copyright and the Generative-AI Supply Chain (The Short Version)
Katherine Lee, A. Feder Cooper, and James Grimmelmann · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
OpenAI and journalism, January 2024
OpenAI · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Recite, Reconstruct, Recollect: Memorization in LMs as a Multifaceted Phenomenon, 2024
USVSN Sai Prashanth, Alvin Deng, Kyle O’Brien, Jyothir S V au2, Mohammad Aflah Khan, Jaydeep Borkar, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Jacob Ray Fuehne, Stella Biderman, Tracy Ke, Katherine Lee, and Naomi Saphra · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Rethinking llm memorization through the lens of adversarial compression
Avi Schwarzschild, Zhili Feng, Pratyush Maini, Zachary C Lipton, and J Zico Kolter · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Elements of Style: Copyright, Similarity, and Generative AI
Benjamin Sobel · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Gemma 2: Improving Open Language Models at a Practical Size, 2024
Gemma Team et al · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
The Deletion Remedy
Daniel Wilf-Townsend · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
What my privacy papers (don’t) have to say about copyright and generative AI, 2025
Nicholas Carlini · 2025
Closest in time.
Generative AI’s Illusory Case for Fair Use
Jacqueline Charlesworth · 2025
Closest in time.
Artificial Infringement
Michael P. Goodyear · 2025
Closest in time.
Measuring memorization in language models via probabilistic extraction
Jamie Hayes, Marika Swanberg, Harsh Chaudhari, Itay Yona, Ilia Shumailov, Milad Nasr, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Katherine Lee, and A. Feder Cooper · 2025
Closest in time.
Memorization: A Close Look at Books, 2025
Iris Ma, Ian Domingo, Alberto Krone-Martins, Pierre Baldi, and Cristina V. Lopes · 2025
Closest in time.
Scalable Extraction of Training Data from Aligned, Production Language Models
Milad Nasr, Javier Rando, Nicholas Carlini, Jonathan Hayase, Matthew Jagielski, A. Feder Cooper, Daphne Ippolito, Christopher A. Choquette-Choo, Florian Tramèr, and Katherine Lee · 2025
Closest in time.
Copyright and Artificial Intelligence (Part 2: Copyrightability), 2025
United States Copyright Office · 2025
Closest in time.