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Humans can reproduce the viewpoint specified by a target image through active head and body motion, yet spatial intelligence in foundation models has largely been studied as passive understanding of pre-collected observations.
Objectnav revisited: On evaluation of embodied agents navigating to objects
Dhruv Batra, Aaron Gokaslan, Aniruddha Kembhavi, Oleksandr Maksymets, Roozbeh Mottaghi, Manolis Savva, Alexander Toshev, and Erik Wijmans. 2020 · 2006
Earlier work this paper cites.
Clevr: A diagnostic dataset for compositional language and elementary visual reasoning
Justin Johnson, Bharath Hariharan, Laurens van der Maaten, Li Fei-Fei, C. Lawrence Zitnick, and Ross Girshick. 2017 · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
AI2-THOR: An Interactive 3D Environment for Visual AI
Eric Kolve, Roozbeh Mottaghi, Winson Han, Eli VanderBilt, Luca Weihs, Alvaro Herrasti, Daniel Gordon, Yuke Zhu, Abhinav Gupta, and Ali Farhadi. 2017 · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Target-driven visual navigation in indoor scenes using deep reinforcement learning
Yuke Zhu, Roozbeh Mottaghi, Eric Kolve, Joseph J Lim, Abhinav Gupta, Li Fei-Fei, and Ali Farhadi. 2017 · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Vision-and-language navigation: Interpreting visually-grounded navigation instructions in real environments
Peter Anderson, Qi Wu, Damien Teney, Jake Bruce, Mark Johnson, Niko Sünderhauf, Ian Reid, Stephen Gould, and Anton Van Den Hengel. 2018 · 2018
Earlier work this paper cites.
ProcTHOR: Large-Scale Embodied AI Using Procedural Generation
Matt Deitke, Eli VanderBilt, Alvaro Herrasti, Luca Weihs, Jordi Salvador, Kiana Ehsani, Winson Han, Eric Kolve, Ali Farhadi, Aniruddha Kembhavi, and Roozbeh Mottaghi. 2022 · 2022
Earlier work this paper cites.
Instance-specific image goal navigation: Training embodied agents to find object instances
Jacob Krantz, Stefan Lee, Jitendra Malik, Dhruv Batra, and Devendra Singh Chaplot. 2022 · 2022
Earlier work this paper cites.
Sqa3d: Situated question answering in 3d scenes
Xiaojian Ma, Silong Yong, Zilong Zheng, Qing Li, Yitao Liang, Song-Chun Zhu, and Siyuan Huang. 2022 · 2022
Earlier work this paper cites.
3d concept learning and reasoning from multi-view images
Yining Hong, Chunru Lin, Yilun Du, Zhenfang Chen, Joshua B Tenenbaum, and Chuang Gan. 2023 · 2023
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Visual spatial reasoning
Fangyu Liu, Guy Emerson, and Nigel Collier. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
π 0 \pi_{0} : A vision-language-action flow model for general robot control
Kevin Black, Noah Brown, Danny Driess, Adnan Esmail, Michael Equi, Chelsea Finn, Niccolo Fusai, Lachy Groom, Karol Hausman, Brian Ichter, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Earlier work this paper cites.
Spatialvlm: Endowing vision-language models with spatial reasoning capabilities
Boyuan Chen, Zhuo Xu, Sean Kirmani, Brain Ichter, Dorsa Sadigh, Leonidas Guibas, and Fei Xia. 2024 · 2024
Earlier work this paper cites.
Spatialrgpt: Grounded spatial reasoning in vision-language models
An-Chieh Cheng, Hongxu Yin, Yang Fu, Qiushan Guo, Ruihan Yang, Jan Kautz, Xiaolong Wang, and Sifei Liu. 2024 · 2024
Earlier work this paper cites.
Aaron Hurst, Adam Lerer, Adam P Goucher, Adam Perelman, Aditya Ramesh, Aidan Clark, AJ Ostrow, Akila Welihinda, Alan Hayes, Alec Radford, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Openvla: An open-source vision-language-action model
Moo Jin Kim, Karl Pertsch, Siddharth Karamcheti, Ted Xiao, Ashwin Balakrishna, Suraj Nair, Rafael Rafailov, Ethan Foster, Grace Lam, Pannag Sanketi, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Openeqa: Embodied question answering in the era of foundation models
Arjun Majumdar, Anurag Ajay, Xiaohan Zhang, Pranav Putta, Sriram Yenamandra, Mikael Henaff, Sneha Silwal, Paul Mcvay, Oleksandr Maksymets, Sergio Arnaud, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Sat: Dynamic spatial aptitude training for multimodal language models
Arijit Ray, Jiafei Duan, Ellis Brown, Reuben Tan, Dina Bashkirova, Rose Hendrix, Kiana Ehsani, Aniruddha Kembhavi, Bryan A Plummer, Ranjay Krishna, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Aaditya Singh, Adam Fry, Adam Perelman, Adam Tart, Adi Ganesh, Ahmed El-Kishky, Aidan McLaughlin, Aiden Low, AJ Ostrow, Akhila Ananthram, and 1 others. 2025 · 2025
Later among the works it cites.
Multi-spatialmllm: Multi-frame spatial understanding with multi-modal large language models
Runsen Xu, Weiyao Wang, Hao Tang, Xingyu Chen, Xiaodong Wang, Fu-Jen Chu, Dahua Lin, Matt Feiszli, and Kevin J Liang. 2025 · 2025
Later among the works it cites.
Spatial mental modeling from limited views
Baiqiao Yin, Qineng Wang, Pingyue Zhang, Jianshu Zhang, Kangrui Wang, Zihan Wang, Jieyu Zhang, Keshigeyan Chandrasegaran, Han Liu, Ranjay Krishna, and 1 others. 2025 · 2025
Later among the works it cites.
Thinking in 360 { \{ \ \backslash deg } \} : Humanoid visual search in the wild
Heyang Yu, Yinan Han, Xiangyu Zhang, Baiqiao Yin, Bowen Chang, Xiangyu Han, Xinhao Liu, Jing Zhang, Marco Pavone, Chen Feng, and 1 others. 2025 · 2025
Later among the works it cites.
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Zhihong Shao, Peiyi Wang, Qihao Zhu, Runxin Xu, Junxiao Song, Xiao Bi, Haowei Zhang, Mingchuan Zhang, YK Li, Yang Wu, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Is a picture worth a thousand words? delving into spatial reasoning for vision language models
Jiayu Wang, Yifei Ming, Zhenmei Shi, Vibhav Vineet, Xin Wang, Yixuan Li, and Neel Joshi. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Robopoint: A vision-language model for spatial affordance prediction for robotics
Wentao Yuan, Jiafei Duan, Valts Blukis, Wilbert Pumacay, Ranjay Krishna, Adithyavairavan Murali, Arsalan Mousavian, and Dieter Fox. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Poliformer: Scaling on-policy rl with transformers results in masterful navigators
Kuo-Hao Zeng, Zichen Zhang, Kiana Ehsani, Rose Hendrix, Jordi Salvador, Alvaro Herrasti, Ross Girshick, Aniruddha Kembhavi, and Luca Weihs. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Navgpt: Explicit reasoning in vision-and-language navigation with large language models
Gengze Zhou, Yicong Hong, and Qi Wu. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Toward ambulatory vision: Learning visually-grounded active view selection
Juil Koo, Daehyeon Choi, Sangwoo Youn, Phillip Y Lee, and Minhyuk Sung. 2025 · 2025
Cited alongside, same era.
Seeground: See and ground for zero-shot open-vocabulary 3d visual grounding
Rong Li, Shijie Li, Lingdong Kong, Xulei Yang, and Junwei Liang. 2025 · 2025
Cited alongside, same era.
Improved visual-spatial reasoning via r1-zero-like training
Zhenyi Liao, Qingsong Xie, Yanhao Zhang, Zijian Kong, Haonan Lu, Zhenyu Yang, and Zhijie Deng. 2025 · 2025
Cited alongside, same era.
Vlm4d: Towards spatiotemporal awareness in vision language models
Shijie Zhou, Alexander Vilesov, Xuehai He, Ziyu Wan, Shuwang Zhang, Aditya Nagachandra, Di Chang, Dongdong Chen, Xin Eric Wang, and Achuta Kadambi. 2025 · 2025
Later among the works it cites.
Gemini 3.1 Pro
Google DeepMind. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.
Esi-bench: Towards embodied spatial intelligence that closes the perception-action loop
Yining Hong, Jiageng Liu, Han Yin, Manling Li, Leonidas Guibas, Li Fei-Fei, Jiajun Wu, and Yejin Choi. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.
E3vs-bench: A benchmark for viewpoint-dependent active perception in 3d gaussian splatting scenes
Koya Sakamoto, Taiki Miyanishi, Daichi Azuma, Shuhei Kurita, Shu Morikuni, Naoya Chiba, Motoaki Kawanabe, Yusuke Iwasawa, and Yutaka Matsuo. 2026 · 2026
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Spatial-mllm: Boosting mllm capabilities in visual-based spatial intelligence
Diankun Wu, Fangfu Liu, Yi-Hsin Hung, and Yueqi Duan. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.
Mimo-v2.5-pro
Xiaomi MiMo Team. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.
Seeing from another perspective: Evaluating multi-view understanding in mllms
Chun-Hsiao Yeh, Chenyu Wang, Shengbang Tong, Ta-Ying Cheng, Ruoyu Wang, Tianzhe Chu, Yuexiang Zhai, Yubei Chen, Shenghua Gao, and Yi Ma. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.
Theory of space: Can foundation models construct spatial beliefs through active exploration?
Pingyue Zhang, Zihan Huang, Yue Wang, Jieyu Zhang, Letian Xue, Zihan Wang, Qineng Wang, Keshigeyan Chandrasegaran, Ruohan Zhang, Yejin Choi, and 1 others. 2026 · 2026
Closest in time.