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Because large language models are expensive to pretrain on different datasets, using smaller-scale experiments to decide on data is crucial for reducing costs.
Scaling laws for neural language models, 2020
Kaplan, J., McCandlish, S., Henighan, T., Brown, T. B., Chess, B., Child, R., Gray, S., Radford, A., Wu, J., and Amodei, D · 2001
Earlier work this paper cites.
Think you have solved question answering? try arc, the ai2 reasoning challenge
Clark, P., Cowhey, I., Etzioni, O., Khot, T., Sabharwal, A., Schoenick, C., and Tafjord, O · 2018
Earlier work this paper cites.
Can a suit of armor conduct electricity? a new dataset for open book question answering
Mihaylov, T., Clark, P., Khot, T., and Sabharwal, A · 2018
Earlier work this paper cites.
BoolQ: Exploring the surprising difficulty of natural yes/no questions
Clark, C., Lee, K., Chang, M.-W., Kwiatkowski, T., Collins, M., and Toutanova, K · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer
Raffel, C., Shazeer, N., Roberts, A., Lee, K., Narang, S., Matena, M., Zhou, Y., Li, W., and Liu, P. J · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
Social IQa: Commonsense reasoning about social interactions
Sap, M., Rashkin, H., Chen, D., Le Bras, R., and Choi, Y · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
CommonsenseQA: A question answering challenge targeting commonsense knowledge
Talmor, A., Herzig, J., Lourie, N., and Berant, J · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
HellaSwag: Can a machine really finish your sentence?
Zellers, R., Holtzman, A., Bisk, Y., Farhadi, A., and Choi, Y · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
PIQA: Reasoning about physical commonsense in natural language
Bisk, Y., Zellers, R., Le bras, R., Gao, J., and Choi, Y · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
WinoGrande: An adversarial winograd schema challenge at scale
Sakaguchi, K., Le Bras, R., Bhagavatula, C., and Choi, Y · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
Program synthesis with large language models
Austin, J., Odena, A., Nye, M., Bosma, M., Michalewski, H., Dohan, D., Jiang, E., Cai, C., Terry, M., Le, Q., et al · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Evaluating large language models trained on code, 2021
Chen, M., Tworek, J., Jun, H., Yuan, Q., de Oliveira Pinto, H. P., Kaplan, J., Edwards, H., Burda, Y., Joseph, N., Brockman, G., Ray, A., Puri, R., Krueger, G., Petrov, M., Khlaaf, H., Sastry, G., Mishkin, P., Chan, B., Gray, S., Ryder, N., Pavlov, M., Power, A., Kaiser, L., Bavarian, M., Winter, C., Tillet, P., Such, F. P., Cummings, D., Plappert, M., Chantzis, F., Barnes, E., Herbert-Voss, A., Guss, W. H., Nichol, A., Paino, A., Tezak, N., Tang, J., Babuschkin, I., Balaji, S., Jain, S., Saunders, W., Hesse, C., Carr, A. N., Leike, J., Achiam, J., Misra, V., Morikawa, E., Radford, A., Knight, M., Brundage, M., Murati, M., Mayer, K., Welinder, P., McGrew, B., Amodei, D., McCandlish, S., Sutskever, I., and Zaremba, W · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Training verifiers to solve math word problems
Cobbe, K., Kosaraju, V., Bavarian, M., Chen, M., Jun, H., Kaiser, L., Plappert, M., Tworek, J., Hilton, J., Nakano, R., Hesse, C., and Schulman, J · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Measuring massive multitask language understanding
Hendrycks, D., Burns, C., Basart, S., Zou, A., Mazeika, M., Song, D., and Steinhardt, J · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Training compute-optimal large language models, 2022
Hoffmann, J., Borgeaud, S., Mensch, A., Buchatskaya, E., Cai, T., Rutherford, E., de Las Casas, D., Hendricks, L. A., Welbl, J., Clark, A., Hennigan, T., Noland, E., Millican, K., van den Driessche, G., Damoc, B., Guy, A., Osindero, S., Simonyan, K., Elsen, E., Rae, J. W., Vinyals, O., and Sifre, L · 2022
Earlier work this paper cites.
Solving quantitative reasoning problems with language models, 2022
Lewkowycz, A., Andreassen, A., Dohan, D., Dyer, E., Michalewski, H., Ramasesh, V., Slone, A., Anil, C., Schlag, I., Gutman-Solo, T., Wu, Y., Neyshabur, B., Gur-Ari, G., and Misra, V · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Pythia: A suite for analyzing large language models across training and scaling, 2023
Biderman, S., Schoelkopf, H., Anthony, Q., Bradley, H., O’Brien, K., Hallahan, E., Khan, M. A., Purohit, S., Prashanth, U. S., Raff, E., Skowron, A., Sutawika, L., and van der Wal, O · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Scaling data-constrained language models
Muennighoff, N., Rush, A., Barak, B., Le Scao, T., Tazi, N., Piktus, A., Pyysalo, S., Wolf, T., and Raffel, C. A · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Penedo, G., Malartic, Q., Hesslow, D., Cojocaru, R.-A., Cappelli, A., Alobeidli, H., Pannier, B., Almazrouei, E., and Launay, J · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Olmes: A standard for language model evaluations, 2024
Gu, Y., Tafjord, O., Kuehl, B., Haddad, D., Dodge, J., and Hajishirzi, H · 2024
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Autoscale: Automatic prediction of compute-optimal data composition for training llms
Kang, F., Sun, Y., Wen, B., Chen, S., Song, D., Mahmood, R., and Jia, R · 2024
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Tülu 3: Pushing frontiers in open language model post-training
Lambert, N., Morrison, J., Pyatkin, V., Huang, S., Ivison, H., Brahman, F., Miranda, L. J. V., Liu, A., Dziri, N., Lyu, S., Gu, Y., Malik, S., Graf, V., Hwang, J. D., Yang, J., Bras, R. L., Tafjord, O., Wilhelm, C., Soldaini, L., Smith, N. A., Wang, Y., Dasigi, P., and Hajishirzi, H · 2024
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Datacomp-lm: In search of the next generation of training sets for language models, 2024
Li, J., Fang, A., Smyrnis, G., Ivgi, M., Jordan, M., Gadre, S., Bansal, H., Guha, E., Keh, S., Arora, K., Garg, S., Xin, R., Muennighoff, N., Heckel, R., Mercat, J., Chen, M., Gururangan, S., Wortsman, M., Albalak, A., Bitton, Y., Nezhurina, M., Abbas, A., Hsieh, C.-Y., Ghosh, D., Gardner, J., Kilian, M., Zhang, H., Shao, R., Pratt, S., Sanyal, S., Ilharco, G., Daras, G., Marathe, K., Gokaslan, A., Zhang, J., Chandu, K., Nguyen, T., Vasiljevic, I., Kakade, S., Song, S., Sanghavi, S., Faghri, F., Oh, S., Zettlemoyer, L., Lo, K., El-Nouby, A., Pouransari, H., Toshev, A., Wang, S., Groeneveld, D., Soldaini, L., Koh, P. W., Jitsev, J., Kollar, T., Dimakis, A. G., Carmon, Y., Dave, A., Schmidt, L., and Shankar, V · 2024
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alphaXiv is searching for related work…
Schaeffer, R., Miranda, B., and Koyejo, S · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Smollm-corpus, July 2024
Ben Allal, L., Lozhkov, A., Penedo, G., Wolf, T., and von Werra, L · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Establishing task scaling laws via compute-efficient model ladders, 2024
Bhagia, A., Liu, J., Wettig, A., Heineman, D., Tafjord, O., Jha, A. H., Soldaini, L., Smith, N. A., Groeneveld, D., Koh, P. W., Dodge, J., and Hajishirzi, H · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Loss-to-loss prediction: Scaling laws for all datasets, 2024
Brandfonbrener, D., Anand, N., Vyas, N., Malach, E., and Kakade, S · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
A hitchhiker’s guide to scaling law estimation, 2024
Choshen, L., Zhang, Y., and Andreas, J · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Understanding emergent abilities of language models from the loss perspective
Du, Z., Zeng, A., Dong, Y., and Tang, J · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
The llama 3 herd of models
Dubey, A., Jauhri, A., Pandey, A., Kadian, A., Al-Dahle, A., Letman, A., Mathur, A., Schelten, A., Yang, A., Fan, A., Goyal, A., Hartshorn, A. S., Yang, A., Mitra, A., Sravankumar, A., Korenev, A., Hinsvark, A., Rao, A., Zhang, A., Rodriguez, A., Gregerson, A., Spataru, A., Rozière, B., Biron, B., Tang, B., Chern, B., Caucheteux, C., Nayak, C., Bi, C., Marra, C., McConnell, C., Keller, C., Touret, C., Wu, C., Wong, C., Ferrer, C. C., Nikolaidis, C., Allonsius, D., Song, D., Pintz, D., Livshits, D., Esiobu, D., Choudhary, D., Mahajan, D., Garcia-Olano, D., Perino, D., Hupkes, D., Lakomkin, E., AlBadawy, E. A., Lobanova, E., Dinan, E., Smith, E. M., Radenovic, F., Zhang, F., Synnaeve, G., Lee, G., Anderson, G. L., Nail, G., Mialon, G., Pang, G., Cucurell, G., Nguyen, H., Korevaar, H., Xu, H., Touvron, H., Zarov, I., Ibarra, I. A., Kloumann, I. M., Misra, I., Evtimov, I., Copet, J., Lee, J., Geffert, J. L., Vranes, J., Park, J., Mahadeokar, J., Shah, J., van der Linde, J., Billock, J., Hong, J., Lee, J., Fu, J., Chi, J., Huang, J., Liu, J., Wang, J., Yu, J., Bitton, J., Spisak, J., Park, J., Rocca, J., Johnstun, J., Saxe, J., Jia, J.-Q., Alwala, K. V., Upasani, K., Plawiak, K., Li, K., neth Heafield, K.-., Stone, K., El-Arini, K., Iyer, K., Malik, K., Chiu, K., Bhalla, K., Rantala-Yeary, L., van der Maaten, L., Chen, L., Tan, L., Jenkins, L., Martin, L., Madaan, L., Malo, L., Blecher, L., Landzaat, L., de Oliveira, L., Muzzi, M., Pasupuleti, M. B., Singh, M., Paluri, M., Kardas, M., Oldham, M., Rita, M., Pavlova, M., Kambadur, M. H. M., Lewis, M., Si, M., Singh, M. K., Hassan, M., Goyal, N., Torabi, N., Bashlykov, N., Bogoychev, N., Chatterji, N. S., Duchenne, O., cCelebi, O., Alrassy, P., Zhang, P., Li, P., Vasić, P., Weng, P., Bhargava, P., Dubal, P., Krishnan, P., Koura, P. S., Xu, P., He, Q., Dong, Q., Srinivasan, R., Ganapathy, R., Calderer, R., Cabral, R. S., Stojnic, R., Raileanu, R., Girdhar, R., Patel, R., Sauvestre, R., Polidoro, R., Sumbaly, R., Taylor, R., Silva, R., Hou, R., Wang, R., Hosseini, S., Chennabasappa, S., Singh, S., Bell, S., Kim, S. S., Edunov, S., Nie, S., Narang, S., Raparthy, S. C., Shen, S., Wan, S., Bhosale, S., Zhang, S., Vandenhende, S., Batra, S., Whitman, S., Sootla, S., Collot, S., Gururangan, S., Borodinsky, S., Herman, T., Fowler, T., Sheasha, T., Georgiou, T., Scialom, T., Speckbacher, T., Mihaylov, T., Xiao, T., Karn, U., Goswami, V., Gupta, V., Ramanathan, V., Kerkez, V., Gonguet, V., Do, V., Vogeti, V., Petrovic, V., Chu, W., Xiong, W., Fu, W., ney Meers, W., Martinet, X., Wang, X., Tan, X. E., Xie, X., Jia, X., Wang, X., Goldschlag, Y., Gaur, Y., Babaei, Y., Wen, Y., Song, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Mao, Y., Coudert, Z. D., Yan, Z., Chen, Z., Papakipos, Z., Singh, A. K., Grattafiori, A., Jain, A., Kelsey, A., Shajnfeld, A., Gangidi, A., Victoria, A., Goldstand, A., Menon, A., Sharma, A., Boesenberg, A., Vaughan, A., Baevski, A., Feinstein, A., Kallet, A., Sangani, A., Yunus, A., Lupu, A., Alvarado, A., Caples, A., Gu, A., Ho, A., Poulton, A., Ryan, A., Ramchandani, A., Franco, A., Saraf, A., Chowdhury, A., Gabriel, A., Bharambe, A., Eisenman, A., Yazdan, A., James, B., Maurer, B., Leonhardi, B., Huang, P.-Y. B., Loyd, B., Paola, B. D., Paranjape, B., Liu, B., Wu, B., Ni, B., Hancock, B., Wasti, B., Spence, B., Stojkovic, B., Gamido, B., Montalvo, B., Parker, C., Burton, C., Mejia, C., Wang, C., Kim, C., Zhou, C., Hu, C., Chu, C.-H., Cai, C., Tindal, C., Feichtenhofer, C., Civin, D., Beaty, D., Kreymer, D., Li, S.-W., Wyatt, D., Adkins, D., Xu, D., Testuggine, D., David, D., Parikh, D., Liskovich, D., Foss, D., Wang, D., Le, D., Holland, D., Dowling, E., Jamil, E., Montgomery, E., Presani, E., Hahn, E., Wood, E., Brinkman, E., Arcaute, E., Dunbar, E., Smothers, E., Sun, F., Kreuk, F., Tian, F., Ozgenel, F., Caggioni, F., Guzm’an, F., Kanayet, F. J., Seide, F., Florez, G. M., Schwarz, G., Badeer, G., Swee, G., Halpern, G., Thattai, G., Herman, G., Sizov, G. G., Zhang, G., Lakshminarayanan, G., Shojanazeri, H., Zou, H., Wang, H., Zha, H., Habeeb, H., Rudolph, H., Suk, H., Aspegren, H., Goldman, H., Molybog, I., Tufanov, I., Veliche, I.-E., Gat, I., Weissman, J., Geboski, J., Kohli, J., Asher, J., Gaya, J.-B., Marcus, J., Tang, J., Chan, J., Zhen, J., Reizenstein, J., Teboul, J., Zhong, J., Jin, J., Yang, J., Cummings, J., Carvill, J., Shepard, J., McPhie, J., Torres, J., Ginsburg, J., Wang, J., Wu, K., KamHou, U., Saxena, K., Prasad, K., Khandelwal, K., Zand, K., Matosich, K., Veeraraghavan, K., Michelena, K., Li, K., Huang, K., Chawla, K., Lakhotia, K., Huang, K., Chen, L., Garg, L., Lavender, A., Silva, L., Bell, L., Zhang, L., Guo, L., Yu, L., Moshkovich, L., Wehrstedt, L., Khabsa, M., Avalani, M., Bhatt, M., Tsimpoukelli, M., Mankus, M., Hasson, M., Lennie, M., Reso, M., Groshev, M., Naumov, M., Lathi, M., Keneally, M., Seltzer, M. L., Valko, M., Restrepo, M., Patel, M., Vyatskov, M., Samvelyan, M., Clark, M., Macey, M., Wang, M., Hermoso, M. J., Metanat, M., Rastegari, M., Bansal, M., Santhanam, N., Parks, N., White, N., Bawa, N., Singhal, N., Egebo, N., Usunier, N., Laptev, N. P., Dong, N., Zhang, N., Cheng, N., Chernoguz, O., Hart, O., Salpekar, O., Kalinli, O., Kent, P., Parekh, P., Saab, P., Balaji, P., Rittner, P., Bontrager, P., Roux, P., Dollár, P., Zvyagina, P., Ratanchandani, P., Yuvraj, P., Liang, Q., Alao, R., Rodriguez, R., Ayub, R., Murthy, R., Nayani, R., Mitra, R., Li, R., Hogan, R., Battey, R., Wang, R., Maheswari, R., Howes, R., Rinott, R., Bondu, S. J., Datta, S., Chugh, S., Hunt, S., Dhillon, S., Sidorov, S., Pan, S., Verma, S., Yamamoto, S., Ramaswamy, S., Lindsay, S., Feng, S., Lin, S., Zha, S. C., Shankar, S., Zhang, S., Wang, S., Agarwal, S., Sajuyigbe, S., Chintala, S., Max, S., Chen, S., Kehoe, S., Satterfield, S., Govindaprasad, S., Gupta, S., Cho, S.-B., Virk, S., Subramanian, S., Choudhury, S., Goldman, S., Remez, T., Glaser, T., Best, T., Kohler, T., Robinson, T., Li, T., Zhang, T., Matthews, T., Chou, T., Shaked, T., Vontimitta, V., Ajayi, V., Montanez, V., Mohan, V., Kumar, V. S., Mangla, V., Ionescu, V., Poenaru, V. A., Mihailescu, V. T., Ivanov, V., Li, W., Wang, W., Jiang, W., Bouaziz, W., Constable, W., Tang, X., Wang, X., Wu, X., Wang, X., Xia, X., Wu, X., Gao, X., Chen, Y., Hu, Y., Jia, Y., Qi, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Adi, Y., Nam, Y., Wang, Y., Hao, Y., Qian, Y., He, Y., Rait, Z., DeVito, Z., Rosnbrick, Z., Wen, Z., Yang, Z., and Zhao, Z · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Language models scale reliably with over-training and on downstream tasks, 2024
Gadre, S. Y., Smyrnis, G., Shankar, V., Gururangan, S., Wortsman, M., Shao, R., Mercat, J., Fang, A., Li, J., Keh, S., Xin, R., Nezhurina, M., Vasiljevic, I., Jitsev, J., Soldaini, L., Dimakis, A. G., Ilharco, G., Koh, P. W., Song, S., Kollar, T., Carmon, Y., Dave, A., Heckel, R., Muennighoff, N., and Schmidt, L · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Later among the works it cites.
Paloma: A benchmark for evaluating language model fit, 2024
Magnusson, I., Bhagia, A., Hofmann, V., Soldaini, L., Jha, A. H., Tafjord, O., Schwenk, D., Walsh, E. P., Elazar, Y., Lo, K., Groeneveld, D., Beltagy, I., Hajishirzi, H., Smith, N. A., Richardson, K., and Dodge, J · 2024
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The fineweb datasets: Decanting the web for the finest text data at scale, 2024
Penedo, G., Kydlíček, H., allal, L. B., Lozhkov, A., Mitchell, M., Raffel, C., Werra, L. V., and Wolf, T · 2024
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Resolving discrepancies in compute-optimal scaling of language models
Porian, T., Wortsman, M., Jitsev, J., Schmidt, L., and Carmon, Y · 2024
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Observational scaling laws and the predictability of langauge model performance
Ruan, Y., Maddison, C. J., and Hashimoto, T · 2024
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Why has predicting downstream capabilities of frontier AI models with scale remained elusive?
Schaeffer, R., Schoelkopf, H., Miranda, B., Mukobi, G., Madan, V., Ibrahim, A., Bradley, H., Biderman, S., and Koyejo, S · 2024
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Dolma: an Open Corpus of Three Trillion Tokens for Language Model Pretraining Research
Soldaini, L., Kinney, R., Bhagia, A., Schwenk, D., Atkinson, D., Authur, R., Bogin, B., Chandu, K., Dumas, J., Elazar, Y., Hofmann, V., Jha, A. H., Kumar, S., Lucy, L., Lyu, X., Lambert, N., Magnusson, I., Morrison, J., Muennighoff, N., Naik, A., Nam, C., Peters, M. E., Ravichander, A., Richardson, K., Shen, Z., Strubell, E., Subramani, N., Tafjord, O., Walsh, P., Zettlemoyer, L., Smith, N. A., Hajishirzi, H., Beltagy, I., Groeneveld, D., Dodge, J., and Lo, K · 2024
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Data mixing laws: Optimizing data mixtures by predicting language modeling performance
Ye, J., Liu, P., Sun, T., Zhou, Y., Zhan, J., and Qiu, X · 2024
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Programming every example: Lifting pre-training data quality like experts at scale
Zhou, F., Wang, Z., Liu, Q., Li, J., and Liu, P · 2024
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Common crawl
Common Crawl · 2025
Closest in time.
OLMo, T., Walsh, P., Soldaini, L., Groeneveld, D., Lo, K., Arora, S., Bhagia, A., Gu, Y., Huang, S., Jordan, M., Lambert, N., Schwenk, D., Tafjord, O., Anderson, T., Atkinson, D., Brahman, F., Clark, C., Dasigi, P., Dziri, N., Guerquin, M., Ivison, H., Koh, P. W., Liu, J., Malik, S., Merrill, W., Miranda, L. J. V., Morrison, J., Murray, T., Nam, C., Pyatkin, V., Rangapur, A., Schmitz, M., Skjonsberg, S., Wadden, D., Wilhelm, C., Wilson, M., Zettlemoyer, L., Farhadi, A., Smith, N. A., and Hajishirzi, H · 2025
Closest in time.