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The question of whether large language models (LLMs) possess Theory of Mind (ToM) -- often defined as the ability to reason about others' mental states -- has sparked significant scientific and public interest.
Pragmatics and theory of mind in older adults’ humor comprehension
L. Bischetti, I. Ceccato, S. Lecce, E. Cavallini, and V. Bambini · 1936
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On what ground do we mentalize? Characteristics of current tasks and sources of information that contribute to mentalizing judgments
A. M. Achim, M. Guitton, P. L. Jackson, A. Boutin, and L. Monetta · 1939
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Young children’s knowledge about visual perception: Further evidence for the Level 1–Level 2 distinction
J. H. Flavell, B. A. Everett, K. Croft, and E. R. Flavell · 1939
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Moral judgment and its relation to second-order theory of mind
G. Fu, W. S. Xiao, M. Killen, and K. Lee · 1939
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Communication in action: Planning and interpreting communicative demonstrations
M. K. Ho, F. Cushman, M. L. Littman, and J. L. Austerweil · 1939
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Is there a hierarchy of social inferences? The likelihood and speed of inferring intentionality, mind, and personality
B. F. Malle and J. Holbrook · 1939
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A Bayesian theory of mind approach to modeling cooperation and communication
S. Stacy, S. Gong, A. Parab, M. Zhao, K. Jiang, and T. Gao · 1939
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An Experimental Study of Apparent Behavior
F. Heider and M. Simmel · 1944
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Construct validity in psychological tests
L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl · 1955
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Chimpanzees: self-recognition
G. G. Gallup Jr · 1970
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Mirror self-image reactions before age two
B. Amsterdam · 1972
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The Early Development of Inferences about the Visual Percepts of Others
Z. S. Masangkay, K. A. McCluskey, C. W. McIntyre, J. Sims-Knight, B. E. Vaughn, and J. H. Flavell · 1974
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Logic and conversation
H. P. Grice · 1975
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Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?
D. Premack and G. Woodruff · 1978
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Definite reference and mutual knowledge
H. H. Clark and C. R. Marshall · 1981
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Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind” ?
S. Baron-Cohen, A. M. Leslie, and U. Frith · 1985
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Referring as a collaborative process
H. H. Clark and D. Wilkes-Gibbs · 1986
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Relevance: Communication and Cognition
D. Sperber and D. Wilson · 1986
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The intentional stance
D. C. Dennett · 1989
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Three-Year-Olds’ Problems with False Belief: Conceptual Deficit or Linguistic Artifact?
C. Lewis and A. Osborne · 1990
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Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks
W. Bechtel and A. Abrahamsen · 1991
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Imitation, cultural learning and the origins of “theory of mind”
A. Gopnik and A. Meltzoff · 1993
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Imitative Learning of Actions on Objects by Children, Chimpanzees, and Enculturated Chimpanzees
M. Tomasello, S. Savage-Rumbaugh, and A. C. Kruger · 1993
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Taking the intentional stance at 12 months of age
G. Gergely, Z. Nádasdy, G. Csibra, and S. Bíró · 1995
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Why Talk about Mental States? The Significance of Children’s Conversations with Friends, Siblings, and Mothers
J. R. Brown, N. Donelan-McCall, and J. Dunn · 1996
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Do Apes Ape?
M. Tomasello · 1996
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The Role of Inhibitory Processes in Young Children’s Difficulties with Deception and False Belief
S. M. Carlson, L. J. Moses, and H. R. Hix · 1998
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Theory of mind in nonhuman primates
C. M. Heyes · 1998
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Competence and performance in false belief understanding: A comparison of autistic and normal 3-year-old children
L. Surian and A. M. Leslie · 1999
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Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know?
B. Hare, J. Call, and M. Tomasello · 2000
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The Relation between Children’s and Mothers’ Mental State Language and Theory-of-Mind Understanding
T. Ruffman, L. Slade, and E. Crowe · 2002
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The influence of language on theory of mind: A training study
C. M. Hale and H. Tager-Flusberg · 2003
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Finding Agents Everywhere
J. Barrett · 2004
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Why Language Matters for Theory of Mind
J. W. Astington and J. A. Baird, editors · 2005
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The development of interpersonal strategy: Autism, theory-of-mind, cooperation and fairness
D. Sally and E. Hill · 2005
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Secret Agents: Inferences About Hidden Causes by 10- and 12-Month-Old Infants
R. Saxe, J. Tenenbaum, and S. Carey · 2005
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Acting Intentionally and the Side-Effect Effect: Theory of Mind and Moral Judgment
A. M. Leslie, J. Knobe, and A. Cohen · 2006
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“I think I know what you mean”: The role of theory of mind in collaborative communication
M. Krych-Appelbaum, J. B. Law, D. Jones, A. Barnacz, A. Johnson, and J. P. Keenan · 2007
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Language and Theory of Mind: Meta-Analysis of the Relation Between Language Ability and False-belief Understanding
K. Milligan, J. W. Astington, and L. A. Dack · 2007
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The neural basis of the interaction between theory of mind and moral judgment
L. Young, F. Cushman, M. Hauser, and R. Saxe · 2007
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Chimpanzees know what others know, but not what they believe
J. Kaminski, J. Call, and M. Tomasello · 2008
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Action understanding as inverse planning
C. L. Baker, R. Saxe, and J. B. Tenenbaum · 2009
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Language promotes false-belief understanding: Evidence from learners of a new sign language
J. E. Pyers and A. Senghas · 2009
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Two minds, one dialog: Coordinating speaking and understanding
S. E. Brennan, A. Galati, and A. K. Kuhlen · 2010
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Social Cognition and the Origins of Imitation, Empathy, and Theory of Mind
A. N. Meltzoff · 2010
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Mindreaders: The cognitive basis of "Theory of Mind"
I. Apperly · 2011
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Developmental Continuity in Theory of Mind: Speed and Accuracy of Belief–Desire Reasoning in Children and Adults
I. A. Apperly, F. Warren, B. J. Andrews, J. Grant, and S. Todd · 2011
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Does the Chimpanzee have a Theory of Mind? 30 years later
J. Call and M. Tomasello · 2011
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Impaired theory of mind for moral judgment in high-functioning autism
J. M. Moran, L. L. Young, R. Saxe, S. M. Lee, D. O’Young, P. L. Mavros, and J. D. Gabrieli · 2011
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How conversational input shapes theory of mind development in infancy and early childhood
V. Slaughter and C. C. Peterson · 2011
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Predicting Pragmatic Reasoning in Language Games
M. C. Frank and N. D. Goodman · 2012
Cited alongside, same era.
The happiness of the fish: Evidence for a common theory of one’s own and others’ actions
R. Saxe · 2012
Cited alongside, same era.
Neural evidence that utterance-processing entails mentalizing: The case of irony
N. Spotorno, E. Koun, J. Prado, J.-B. Van Der Henst, and I. A. Noveck · 2012
Cited alongside, same era.
Reporting bias and knowledge acquisition
J. Gordon and B. Van Durme · 2013
Cited alongside, same era.
Two mentalizing capacities and the understanding of two types of lie telling in children
Y. K. Hsu and H. Cheung · 2013
Cited alongside, same era.
The mentalistic basis of core social cognition: Experiments in preverbal infants and a computational model
J. Kiley Hamlin, T. Ullman, J. Tenenbaum, N. Goodman, and C. Baker · 2013
What are large language models supposed to model?
I. A. Blank · 2023
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Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4, 2023
S. Bubeck, V. Chandrasekaran, R. Eldan, J. Gehrke, E. Horvitz, E. Kamar, P. Lee, Y. T. Lee, Y. Li, S. Lundberg, H. Nori, H. Palangi, M. T. Ribeiro, and Y. Zhang · 2023
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Large Language Models Behave (Almost) As Rational Speech Actors: Insights From Metaphor Understanding
G. Carenini, L. Bodot, L. Bischetti, W. Schaeken, and V. Bambini · 2023
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The Rational Speech Act Framework
J. Degen · 2023
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Theory Of Mind As An Emergent Property Of Generative AI Could Be A Linchpin For AI-Powered Mental Health Advisement Apps
L. Eliot · 2023
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Cited alongside, same era.
Perceiving animacy and intentionality: Visual processing or higher-level judgment
B. J. Scholl and T. Gao · 2013
Cited alongside, same era.
Modeling Human Plan Recognition Using Bayesian Theory of Mind
C. L. Baker and J. B. Tenenbaum · 2014
Cited alongside, same era.
The Role of Language in Theory of Mind Development
J. G. de Villiers and P. A. de Villiers · 2014
Cited alongside, same era.
Pragmatic Language Interpretation as Probabilistic Inference
N. D. Goodman and M. C. Frank · 2016
Cited alongside, same era.
Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs
C. Krupenye, F. Kano, S. Hirata, J. Call, and M. Tomasello · 2016
Cited alongside, same era.
Two-and-a-half-year-olds succeed at a traditional false-belief task with reduced processing demands
P. Setoh, R. M. Scott, and R. Baillargeon · 2016
Cited alongside, same era.
A tripartite structure of pragmatic language abilities: Comprehension of social conventions, intonation processing, and causal reasoning, Sept. 2023
S. Floyd, O. Jouravlev, Z. Mineroff, E. Gibson, and E. Fedorenko · 2023
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Understanding Social Reasoning in Language Models with Language Models, 2023
K. Gandhi, J.-P. Fränken, T. Gerstenberg, and N. D. Goodman · 2023
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Understanding human intentions will be the next big breakthrough in AI
E. Gent · 2023
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Hi-tom: A benchmark for evaluating higher-order theory of mind reasoning in large language models
Y. He, Y. Wu, Y. Jia, R. Mihalcea, Y. Chen, and N. Deng · 2023
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Does ChatGPT have Theory of Mind?, 2023
B. Holterman and K. v. Deemter · 2023
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A fine-grained comparison of pragmatic language understanding in humans and language models
J. Hu, S. Floyd, O. Jouravlev, E. Fedorenko, and E. Gibson · 2023
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Stop Uploading Test Data in Plain Text: Practical Strategies for Mitigating Data Contamination by Evaluation Benchmarks
A. Jacovi, A. Caciularu, O. Goldman, and Y. Goldberg · 2023
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M. Jamali, Z. M. Williams, and J. Cai · 2023
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FANToM: A Benchmark for Stress-testing Machine Theory of Mind in Interactions, 2023
H. Kim, M. Sclar, X. Zhou, R. L. Bras, G. Kim, Y. Choi, and M. Sap · 2023
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A. K. Lampinen · 2023
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Towards A Holistic Landscape of Situated Theory of Mind in Large Language Models
Z. Ma, J. Sansom, R. Peng, and J. Chai · 2023
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Circuit component reuse across tasks in transformer language models
J. Merullo, C. Eickhoff, and E. Pavlick · 2023
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Boosting Theory-of-Mind Performance in Large Language Models via Prompting, 2023
S. R. Moghaddam and C. J. Honey · 2023
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Language Models are Bounded Pragmatic Speakers
K. X. Nguyen · 2023
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The Goldilocks of Pragmatic Understanding: Fine-Tuning Strategy Matters for Implicature Resolution by LLMs
L. E. Ruis, A. Khan, S. Biderman, S. Hooker, T. Rocktäschel, and E. Grefenstette · 2023
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Minding Language Models’ (Lack of) Theory of Mind: A Plug-and-Play Multi-Character Belief Tracker
M. Sclar, S. Kumar, P. West, A. Suhr, Y. Choi, and Y. Tsvetkov · 2023
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Do Large Language Models Know What Humans Know?
S. Trott, C. Jones, T. Chang, J. Michaelov, and B. Bergen · 2023
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Large Language Models Fail on Trivial Alterations to Theory-of-Mind Tasks, 2023
T. Ullman · 2023
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Theory of Mind in Large Language Models: Examining Performance of 11 State-of-the-Art models vs. Children Aged 7-10 on Advanced Tests
M. van Duijn, B. van Dijk, T. Kouwenhoven, W. de Valk, M. Spruit, and P. van der Putten · 2023
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Can a Machine Know That We Know What It Knows?
O. Whang · 2023
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A. Yedetore, T. Linzen, R. Frank, and R. T. McCoy · 2023
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How FaR Are Large Language Models From Agents with Theory-of-Mind?, 2023
P. Zhou, A. Madaan, S. P. Potharaju, A. Gupta, K. R. McKee, A. Holtzman, J. Pujara, X. Ren, S. Mishra, A. Nematzadeh, S. Upadhyay, and M. Faruqui · 2023
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Variability of theory of mind versus pragmatic ability in typical and atypical development
A. Babarczy, D. Dobó, P. Nagy, A. Mészáros, and Á. Lukács · 2024
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Suspicion agent: Playing imperfect information games with theory of mind aware GPT-4
J. Guo, B. Yang, P. Yoo, B. Y. Lin, Y. Iwasawa, and Y. Matsuo · 2024
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Spontaneous Theory of Mind for Artificial Intelligence, 2024
N. Gurney, D. V. Pynadath, and V. Ustun · 2024
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Auxiliary task demands mask the capabilities of smaller language models, 2024
J. Hu and M. C. Frank · 2024
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A. A. Ivanova, A. Sathe, B. Lipkin, U. Kumar, S. Radkani, T. H. Clark, C. Kauf, J. Hu, R. T. Pramod, G. Grand, V. Paulun, M. Ryskina, E. Akyurek, E. Wilcox, N. Rashid, L. Choshen, R. Levy, E. Fedorenko, J. Tenenbaum, and J. Andreas · 2024
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Are LLMs good pragmatic speakers?
M. Jian and S. N · 2024
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MMToM-QA: Multimodal Theory of Mind Question Answering
C. Jin, Y. Wu, J. Cao, J. Xiang, Y.-L. Kuo, Z. Hu, T. Ullman, A. Torralba, J. B. Tenenbaum, and T. Shu · 2024
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Comparing humans and large language models on an experimental protocol inventory for theory of mind evaluation (EPITOME)
C. R. Jones, S. Trott, and B. Bergen · 2024
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Evaluating large language models in theory of mind tasks
M. Kosinski · 2024
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Language models, like humans, show content effects on reasoning tasks
A. K. Lampinen, I. Dasgupta, S. C. Y. Chan, H. R. Sheahan, A. Creswell, D. Kumaran, J. L. McClelland, and F. Hill · 2024
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Embers of autoregression show how large language models are shaped by the problem they are trained to solve
R. T. McCoy, S. Yao, D. Friedman, M. D. Hardy, and T. L. Griffiths · 2024
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Language Models Learn Rare Phenomena from Less Rare Phenomena: The Case of the Missing AANNs, 2024
K. Misra and K. Mahowald · 2024
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Leaving the barn door open for Clever Hans: Simple features predict LLM benchmark answers, 2024
L. Pacchiardi, M. Tesic, L. G. Cheke, and J. Hernández-Orallo · 2024
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Clever Hans or Neural Theory of Mind? Stress Testing Social Reasoning in Large Language Models
N. Shapira, M. Levy, S. H. Alavi, X. Zhou, Y. Choi, Y. Goldberg, M. Sap, and V. Shwartz · 2024
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Rethinking interpretability in the era of large language models
C. Singh, J. P. Inala, M. Galley, R. Caruana, and J. Gao · 2024
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PUB: A Pragmatics Understanding Benchmark for Assessing LLMs’ Pragmatics Capabilities
S. Sravanthi, M. Doshi, P. Tankala, R. Murthy, R. Dabre, and P. Bhattacharyya · 2024
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Testing theory of mind in large language models and humans
J. W. A. Strachan, D. Albergo, G. Borghini, O. Pansardi, E. Scaliti, S. Gupta, K. Saxena, A. Rufo, S. Panzeri, G. Manzi, M. S. A. Graziano, and C. Becchio · 2024
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Llm theory of mind and alignment: Opportunities and risks
W. Street · 2024
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LLMs achieve adult human performance on higher-order theory of mind tasks, 2024
W. Street, J. O. Siy, G. Keeling, A. Baranes, B. Barnett, M. McKibben, T. Kanyere, A. Lentz, B. A. y. Arcas, and R. I. M. Dunbar · 2024
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W. Tang and V. Belle · 2024
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Think Twice: Perspective-Taking Improves Large Language Models’ Theory-of-Mind Capabilities
A. Wilf, S. Lee, P. P. Liang, and L.-P. Morency · 2024
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How to evaluate the cognitive abilities of LLMs
A. A. Ivanova · 2025
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