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The evaluation of Large Language Models (LLMs) remains challenging due to inconsistency, bias, and the absence of transparent decision criteria in automated judging.
A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning
Ninareh Mehrabi, Fred Morstatter, Nripsuta Saxena, Kristina Lerman, and Aram Galstyan. 2022 · 1908
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Fine-tuning language models from human preferences
Daniel M. Ziegler, Nisan Stiennon, Jeffrey Wu, Tom B. Brown, Alec Radford, Dario Amodei, Paul Christiano, and Geoffrey Irving. 2020 · 1909
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Bleu: a method for automatic evaluation of machine translation
Kishore Papineni, Salim Roukos, Todd Ward, and Wei-Jing Zhu. 2002 · 2002
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ROUGE: A package for automatic evaluation of summaries
Chin-Yew Lin. 2004 · 2004
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Language models are few-shot learners
Tom B. Brown, Benjamin Mann, Nick Ryder, Melanie Subbiah, Jared Kaplan, Prafulla Dhariwal, Arvind Neelakantan, Pranav Shyam, Girish Sastry, Amanda Askell, Sandhini Agarwal, Ariel Herbert-Voss, Gretchen Krueger, Tom Henighan, Rewon Child, Aditya Ramesh, Daniel M. Ziegler, Jeffrey Wu, Clemens Winter, and 12 others. 2020 · 2005
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Re-evaluating the role of Bleu in machine translation research
Chris Callison-Burch, Miles Osborne, and Philipp Koehn. 2006 · 2006
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Evaluation of text generation: A survey
Asli Celikyilmaz, Elizabeth Clark, and Jianfeng Gao. 2021 · 2006
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Tangled up in bleu: Reevaluating the evaluation of automatic machine translation evaluation metrics
Nitika Mathur, Timothy Baldwin, and Trevor Cohn. 2020 · 2006
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Squad: 100,000+ questions for machine comprehension of text
Pranav Rajpurkar, Jian Zhang, Konstantin Lopyrev, and Percy Liang. 2016 · 2016
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Twenty years of confusion in human evaluation: NLG needs evaluation sheets and standardised definitions
David M. Howcroft, Anya Belz, Miruna-Adriana Clinciu, Dimitra Gkatzia, Sadid A. Hasan, Saad Mahamood, Simon Mille, Emiel van Miltenburg, Sashank Santhanam, and Verena Rieser. 2020 · 2020
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A general language assistant as a laboratory for alignment
Amanda Askell, Yuntao Bai, Anna Chen, Dawn Drain, Deep Ganguli, Tom Henighan, Andy Jones, Nicholas Joseph, Ben Mann, Nova DasSarma, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny Hernandez, Jackson Kernion, Kamal Ndousse, Catherine Olsson, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown, Jack Clark, and 3 others. 2021 · 2021
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Training a helpful and harmless assistant with reinforcement learning from human feedback
Yuntao Bai, Andy Jones, Kamal Ndousse, Amanda Askell, Anna Chen, Nova DasSarma, Dawn Drain, Stanislav Fort, Deep Ganguli, Tom Henighan, Nicholas Joseph, Saurav Kadavath, Jackson Kernion, Tom Conerly, Sheer El-Showk, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny Hernandez, Tristan Hume, and 12 others. 2022 · 2022
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Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences
Paul Christiano, Jan Leike, Tom B. Brown, Miljan Martic, Shane Legg, and Dario Amodei. 2023 · 2023
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Generative judge for evaluating alignment
Junlong Li, Shichao Sun, Weizhe Yuan, Run-Ze Fan, Hai Zhao, and Pengfei Liu. 2023 · 2023
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Holistic evaluation of language models
Percy Liang, Rishi Bommasani, Tony Lee, Dimitris Tsipras, Dilara Soylu, Michihiro Yasunaga, Yian Zhang, Deepak Narayanan, Yuhuai Wu, Ananya Kumar, Benjamin Newman, Binhang Yuan, Bobby Yan, Ce Zhang, Christian Cosgrove, Christopher D. Manning, Christopher Ré, Diana Acosta-Navas, Drew A. Hudson, and 31 others. 2023 · 2023
Llama. 2024 · 2024
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Pandalm: An automatic evaluation benchmark for llm instruction tuning optimization
Yidong Wang, Zhuohao Yu, Zhengran Zeng, Linyi Yang, Cunxiang Wang, Hao Chen, Chaoya Jiang, Rui Xie, Jindong Wang, Xing Xie, Wei Ye, Shikun Zhang, and Yue Zhang. 2024 · 2024
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KIEval: A knowledge-grounded interactive evaluation framework for large language models
Zhuohao Yu, Chang Gao, Wenjin Yao, Yidong Wang, Wei Ye, Jindong Wang, Xing Xie, Yue Zhang, and Shikun Zhang. 2024 · 2024
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M-MAD: Multidimensional multi-agent debate for advanced machine translation evaluation
Zhaopeng Feng, Jiayuan Su, Jiamei Zheng, Jiahan Ren, Yan Zhang, Jian Wu, Hongwei Wang, and Zuozhu Liu. 2025 · 2025
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Preference leakage: A contamination problem in llm-as-a-judge
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Large language models are not fair evaluators
Peiyi Wang, Lei Li, Liang Chen, Zefan Cai, Dawei Zhu, Binghuai Lin, Yunbo Cao, Qi Liu, Tianyu Liu, and Zhifang Sui. 2023 · 2023
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Judging llm-as-a-judge with mt-bench and chatbot arena
Lianmin Zheng, Wei-Lin Chiang, Ying Sheng, Siyuan Zhuang, Zhanghao Wu, Yonghao Zhuang, Zi Lin, Zhuohan Li, Dacheng Li, Eric P. Xing, Hao Zhang, Joseph E. Gonzalez, and Ion Stoica. 2023 · 2023
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Chateval: Towards better LLM-based evaluators through multi-agent debate
Chi-Min Chan, Weize Chen, Yusheng Su, Jianxuan Yu, Wei Xue, Shanghang Zhang, Jie Fu, and Zhiyuan Liu. 2024 · 2024
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Metagpt: Meta programming for a multi-agent collaborative framework
Sirui Hong, Mingchen Zhuge, Jiaqi Chen, Xiawu Zheng, Yuheng Cheng, Ceyao Zhang, Jinlin Wang, Zili Wang, Steven Ka Shing Yau, Zijuan Lin, Liyang Zhou, Chenyu Ran, Lingfeng Xiao, Chenglin Wu, and Jürgen Schmidhuber. 2024 · 2024
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Prometheus: Inducing fine-grained evaluation capability in language models
Seungone Kim, Jamin Shin, Yejin Cho, Joel Jang, Shayne Longpre, Hwaran Lee, Sangdoo Yun, Seongjin Shin, Sungdong Kim, James Thorne, and Minjoon Seo. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Prd: Peer rank and discussion improve large language model based evaluations
Ruosen Li, Teerth Patel, and Xinya Du. 2024 · 2024
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Alignbench: Benchmarking chinese alignment of large language models
Xiao Liu, Xuanyu Lei, Shengyuan Wang, Yue Huang, Zhuoer Feng, Bosi Wen, Jiale Cheng, Pei Ke, Yifan Xu, Weng Lam Tam, Xiaohan Zhang, Lichao Sun, Xiaotao Gu, Hongning Wang, Jing Zhang, Minlie Huang, Yuxiao Dong, and Jie Tang. 2024 · 2024
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Dawei Li, Renliang Sun, Yue Huang, Ming Zhong, Bohan Jiang, Jiawei Han, Xiangliang Zhang, Wei Wang, and Huan Liu. 2025 · 2025
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The silent judge: Unacknowledged shortcut bias in llm-as-a-judge
Arash Marioriyad, Mohammad Hossein Rohban, and Mahdieh Soleymani Baghshah. 2025 · 2025
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Stop overvaluing multi-agent debate – we must rethink evaluation and embrace model heterogeneity
Hangfan Zhang, Zhiyao Cui, Jianhao Chen, Xinrun Wang, Qiaosheng Zhang, Zhen Wang, Dinghao Wu, and Shuyue Hu. 2025 · 2025
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Claude 3 Opus
Anthropic. 2025 · 2026
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Mistral Large
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GPT-4-Turbo
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