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The most effective techniques to detect LLM-generated text rely on inserting a detectable signature -- or watermark -- during the model's decoding process.
Electronic marking and identification techniques to discourage document copying
J.T. Brassil, S. Low, N.F. Maxemchuk, and L. O’Gorman. 1995 · 1995
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Document identification for copyright protection using centroid detection
S.H. Low, N.F. Maxemchuk, and A.M. Lapone. 1998 · 1998
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Natural language watermarking: Design, analysis, and a proof-of-concept implementation
Mikhail J. Atallah, Victor Raskin, Michael Crogan, Christian Hempelmann, Florian Kerschbaum, Dina Mohamed, and Sanket Naik. 2001 · 2001
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Natural language watermarking and tamperproofing
Mikhail J. Atallah, Victor Raskin, Christian F. Hempelmann, Mercan Karahan, Radu Sion, Umut Topkara, and Katrina E. Triezenberg. 2003 · 2003
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The hiding virtues of ambiguity: quantifiably resilient watermarking of natural language text through synonym substitutions
Umut Topkara, Mercan Topkara, and Mikhail J. Atallah. 2006 · 2006
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Adversarial watermarking transformer: Towards tracing text provenance with data hiding
Sahar Abdelnabi and Mario Fritz. 2021 · 2009
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Natural language watermarking via morphosyntactic alterations
Hasan Mesut Meral, Bülent Sankur, A. Sumru Özsoy, Tunga Güngör, and Emre Sevinç. 2009 · 2009
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Watermarking the outputs of structured prediction with an application in statistical machine translation
Ashish Venugopal, Jakob Uszkoreit, David Talbot, Franz Och, and Juri Ganitkevitch. 2011 · 2011
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From paraphrase database to compositional paraphrase model and back
John Wieting, Mohit Bansal, Kevin Gimpel, and Karen Livescu. 2015 · 2015
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Generating steganographic text with LSTMs
Tina Fang, Martin Jaggi, and Katerina Argyraki. 2017 · 2017
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Pointer sentinel mixture models
Stephen Merity, Caiming Xiong, James Bradbury, and Richard Socher. 2017 · 2017
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Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer
Colin Raffel, Noam Shazeer, Adam Roberts, Katherine Lee, Sharan Narang, Michael Matena, Yanqi Zhou, Wei Li, and Peter J. Liu. 2020 · 2020
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Meteor: Cryptographically secure steganography for realistic distributions
Gabriel Kaptchuk, Tushar M. Jois, Matthew Green, and Aviel D. Rubin. 2021 · 2021
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Ethical and social risks of harm from language models
Laura Weidinger, John Mellor, Maribeth Rauh, Conor Griffin, Jonathan Uesato, Po-Sen Huang, Myra Cheng, Mia Glaese, Borja Balle, Atoosa Kasirzadeh, Zac Kenton, Sasha Brown, Will Hawkins, Tom Stepleton, Courtney Biles, Abeba Birhane, Julia Haas, Laura Rimell, Lisa Anne Hendricks, William Isaac, Sean Legassick, Geoffrey Irving, and Iason Gabriel. 2021 · 2021
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Watermarking gpt outputs
Scott Aaronson and Hendrik Kirchner. 2022 · 2022
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Training a helpful and harmless assistant with reinforcement learning from human feedback
Yuntao Bai, Andy Jones, Kamal Ndousse, Amanda Askell, Anna Chen, Nova DasSarma, Dawn Drain, Stanislav Fort, Deep Ganguli, Tom Henighan, Nicholas Joseph, Saurav Kadavath, Jackson Kernion, Tom Conerly, Sheer El-Showk, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny Hernandez, Tristan Hume, Scott Johnston, Shauna Kravec, Liane Lovitt, Neel Nanda, Catherine Olsson, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown, Jack Clark, Sam McCandlish, Chris Olah, Ben Mann, and Jared Kaplan. 2022 · 2022
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Perplexity from plm is unreliable for evaluating text quality
Yequan Wang, Jiawen Deng, Aixin Sun, and Xuying Meng. 2022 · 2022
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Opt: Open pre-trained transformer language models
Susan Zhang, Stephen Roller, Naman Goyal, Mikel Artetxe, Moya Chen, Shuohui Chen, Christopher Dewan, Mona Diab, Xian Li, Xi Victoria Lin, Todor Mihaylov, Myle Ott, Sam Shleifer, Kurt Shuster, Daniel Simig, Punit Singh Koura, Anjali Sridhar, Tianlu Wang, and Luke Zettlemoyer. 2022 · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Undetectable watermarks for language models
Miranda Christ, Sam Gunn, and Or Zamir. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Redpajama: an open dataset for training large language models
Together Computer. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Semstamp: A semantic watermark with paraphrastic robustness for text generation
Abe Bohan* Hou, Jingyu* Zhang, Tianxing* He, Yung-Sung Chuang, Hongwei Wang, Lingfeng Shen, Benjamin Van Durme, Daniel Khashabi, and Yulia Tsvetkov. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Judging llm-as-a-judge with mt-bench and chatbot arena
Lianmin Zheng, Wei-Lin Chiang, Ying Sheng, Siyuan Zhuang, Zhanghao Wu, Yonghao Zhuang, Zi Lin, Zhuohan Li, Dacheng Li, Eric P. Xing, Hao Zhang, Joseph E. Gonzalez, and Ion Stoica. 2023 · 2023
Later among the works it cites.
Llama 3 model card
AI@Meta. 2024 · 2024
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Zhiwei He, Binglin Zhou, Hongkun Hao, Aiwei Liu, Xing Wang, Zhaopeng Tu, Zhuosheng Zhang, and Rui Wang. 2024 · 2024
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k-semstamp: A clustering-based semantic watermark for detection of machine-generated text
Abe Bohan Hou, Jingyu Zhang, Yichen Wang, Daniel Khashabi, and Tianxing He. 2024 · 2024
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Unbiased watermark for large language models
Zhengmian Hu, Lichang Chen, Xidong Wu, Yihan Wu, Hongyang Zhang, and Heng Huang. 2024 · 2024
alphaXiv searches the wider corpus for related work and actual follow-ups.
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Albert Q. Jiang, Alexandre Sablayrolles, Arthur Mensch, Chris Bamford, Devendra Singh Chaplot, Diego de las Casas, Florian Bressand, Gianna Lengyel, Guillaume Lample, Lucile Saulnier, Lélio Renard Lavaud, Marie-Anne Lachaux, Pierre Stock, Teven Le Scao, Thibaut Lavril, Thomas Wang, Timothée Lacroix, and William El Sayed. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
A watermark for large language models
John Kirchenbauer, Jonas Geiping, Yuxin Wen, Jonathan Katz, Ian Miers, and Tom Goldstein. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Paraphrasing evades detectors of AI-generated text, but retrieval is an effective defense
Kalpesh Krishna, Yixiao Song, Marzena Karpinska, John Wieting, and Mohit Iyyer. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
FActScore: Fine-grained atomic evaluation of factual precision in long form text generation
Sewon Min, Kalpesh Krishna, Xinxi Lyu, Mike Lewis, Wen-tau Yih, Pang Koh, Mohit Iyyer, Luke Zettlemoyer, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Detectgpt: Zero-shot machine-generated text detection using probability curvature
Eric Mitchell, Yoonho Lee, Alexander Khazatsky, Christopher D. Manning, and Chelsea Finn. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Biases in large language models: Origins, inventory, and discussion
Roberto Navigli, Simone Conia, and Björn Ross. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Natural language watermarking via paraphraser-based lexical substitution
Jipeng Qiang, Shiyu Zhu, Yun Li, Yi Zhu, Yunhao Yuan, and Xindong Wu. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
The curse of recursion: Training on generated data makes models forget
Ilia Shumailov, Zakhar Shumaylov, Yiren Zhao, Yarin Gal, Nicolas Papernot, and Ross Anderson. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
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On the reliability of watermarks for large language models
John Kirchenbauer, Jonas Geiping, Yuxin Wen, Manli Shu, Khalid Saifullah, Kezhi Kong, Kasun Fernando, Aniruddha Saha, Micah Goldblum, and Tom Goldstein. 2024 · 2024
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Robust distortion-free watermarks for language models
Rohith Kuditipudi, John Thickstun, Tatsunori Hashimoto, and Percy Liang. 2024 · 2024
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Rewardbench: Evaluating reward models for language modeling
Nathan Lambert, Valentina Pyatkin, Jacob Morrison, LJ Miranda, Bill Yuchen Lin, Khyathi Chandu, Nouha Dziri, Sachin Kumar, Tom Zick, Yejin Choi, Noah A. Smith, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi. 2024 · 2024
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Waterjudge: Quality-detection trade-off when watermarking large language models
Piotr Molenda, Adian Liusie, and Mark J. F. Gales. 2024 · 2024
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Travis Munyer, Abdullah Tanvir, Arjon Das, and Xin Zhong. 2024 · 2024
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Nomic embed: Training a reproducible long context text embedder
Zach Nussbaum, John X. Morris, Brandon Duderstadt, and Andriy Mulyar. 2024 · 2024
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Markllm: An open-source toolkit for llm watermarking
Leyi Pan, Aiwei Liu, Zhiwei He, Zitian Gao, Xuandong Zhao, Yijian Lu, Binglin Zhou, Shuliang Liu, Xuming Hu, Lijie Wen, and Irwin King. 2024 · 2024
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Llm evaluators recognize and favor their own generations
Arjun Panickssery, Samuel R. Bowman, and Shi Feng. 2024 · 2024
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Can ai-generated text be reliably detected?
Vinu Sankar Sadasivan, Aounon Kumar, Sriram Balasubramanian, Wenxiao Wang, and Soheil Feizi. 2024 · 2024
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Hallucination is inevitable: An innate limitation of large language models
Ziwei Xu, Sanjay Jain, and Mohan Kankanhalli. 2024 · 2024
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MTEB: Massive text embedding benchmark
Niklas Muennighoff, Nouamane Tazi, Loic Magne, and Nils Reimers. 2023 · 2037
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