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We summarize the current state of the field of NLP & Law with a specific focus on recent technical and substantive developments.
Syntactic structures (De Gruyter Mouton, 1957)
Chomsky, N · 1957
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Margie: Memory analysis response generation, and inference on english
Schank, R. C., Goldman, N. M., Rieger III, C. J. & Riesbeck, C · 1973
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A conceptual theory of question answering
Lehnert, W. G · 1977
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Learning representations by back-propagating errors
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E. & Williams, R. J · 1986
Earlier work this paper cites.
The British Nationality Act as a logic program
Sergot, M. J. et al · 1986
Earlier work this paper cites.
Logic programming for large scale applications in law: A formalisation of supplementary benefit legislation
Bench-Capon, T. J. M., Robinson, G. O., Routen, T. W. & Sergot, M. J · 1987
Earlier work this paper cites.
Access to justice (Oxford University Press, 2004)
Rhode, D. L · 2004
Earlier work this paper cites.
Deep semantic interpretations of legal texts
McCarty, L. T · 2007
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All the wild possibilities: Technology that attacks barriers to access to justice
Staudt, R. W · 2008
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Effect of the age of papers on the preferential attachment in citation networks
Wang, M., Yu, G. & Yu, D · 2009
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Law’s information revolution
Kobayashi, B. H. & Ribstein, L. E · 2011
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Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality
Mikolov, T., Sutskever, I., Chen, K., Corrado, G. S. & Dean, J · 2013
Earlier work this paper cites.
The cost of law: Promoting access to justice through the (un) corporate practice of law
Hadfield, G. K · 2014
Earlier work this paper cites.
Glove: Global vectors for word representation
Pennington, J., Socher, R. & Manning, C. D · 2014
Earlier work this paper cites.
An economic perspective of disk vs. flash media in archival storage
Gupta, P. et al · 2014
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Measuring, monitoring, and managing legal complexity
Ruhl, J. B. & Katz, D. M · 2015
Earlier work this paper cites.
Deep learning
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y. & Hinton, G · 2015
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Power laws in citation distributions: evidence from scopus
Brzezinski, M · 2015
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Growth rates of modern science: A bibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited references
Bornmann, L. & Mutz, R · 2015
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A primer on neural network models for natural language processing
Goldberg, Y · 2016
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Multiple citation indicators and their composite across scientific disciplines
Ioannidis, J. P., Klavans, R. & Boyack, K. W · 2016
Earlier work this paper cites.
Factors affecting number of citations: a comprehensive review of the literature
Tahamtan, I., Safipour Afshar, A. & Ahamdzadeh, K · 2016
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Harnessing legal complexity
Ruhl, J., Katz, D. & Bommarito, M · 2017
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Improving access to justice in state courts with platform technology
Prescott, J. J · 2017
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Tomorrow’s lawyers: An introduction to your future (Oxford University Press, 2017)
Susskind, R. E · 2017
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Rebooting justice: More technology, fewer lawyers, and the future of law (Encounter Books, 2017)
Barton, B. H. & Bibas, S · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Attention is all you need
Vaswani, A. et al · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Artificial intelligence and legal analytics: new tools for law practice in the digital age (Cambridge University Press, 2017)
Ashley, K. D · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Reproducibility project yields muddy results
Baker, M. & Dolgin, E · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
A manifesto for reproducible science
Munafò, M. R. et al · 2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Access to justice and routine legal services: New technologies meet bar regulators
Barton, B. H. & Rhode, D. L · 2018
Earlier work this paper cites.
Deep contextualized word representations
Peters, M. E. et al · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Legal Ontology for Modelling GDPR Concepts and Norms
Palmirani, M., Martoni, M., Rossi, A. & Robaldo, L · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Query generation for patent retrieval with keyword extraction based on syntactic features
Rossi, J. & Kanoulas, E · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Reproducibility in scientific computing
Ivie, P. & Thain, D · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Measuring the justice gap – a people-centered assessment of unmet justice needs around the world
Chamness Long, S., Ponce, A. & Andersen, E · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Online courts and the future of justice (Oxford University Press, 2019)
Susskind, R. E · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Predicting consumer contracts
Kolt, N · 2022
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Efficient transformers: A survey
Tay, Y., Dehghani, M., Bahri, D. & Metzler, D · 2022
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Bloom: A 176b-parameter open-access multilingual language model
Scao, T. L. et al · 2022
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Lamda: Language models for dialog applications
Thoppilan, R. et al · 2022
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Lexglue: A benchmark dataset for legal language understanding in english
Chalkidis, I. et al · 2022
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Law as Data: Computation, Text, & the Future of Legal Analysis (Santa Fe Institute Press, 2019)
Livermore, M. A. & Rockmore, D. N · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Law and word order: Nlp in legal tech
Dale, R · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Bert: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding
Kenton, J. D. M.-W. C. & Toutanova, L. K · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Pre-trained contextual embeddings for litigation code classification
Bartolo, M., Tylinski, K. & Moore, A · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
What do citation counts measure? an updated review of studies on citations in scientific documents published between 2006 and 2018
Tahamtan, I. & Bornmann, L · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Scibert: A pretrained language model for scientific text
Beltagy, I., Lo, K. & Cohan, A · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Huang, J. et al · 2022
Later among the works it cites.
Promptchainer: Chaining large language model prompts through visual programming
Wu, T. et al · 2022
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Large language models are human-level prompt engineers
Zhou, Y. et al · 2022
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Thirty years of artificial intelligence and law: the first decade
Governatori, G. et al · 2022
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Galactica: A large language model for science
Taylor, R. et al · 2022
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A survey of human-in-the-loop for machine learning
Wu, X. et al · 2022
Later among the works it cites.
Human-in-the-loop machine learning: A macro-micro perspective
Wang, J., Guo, B. & Chen, L · 2022
Later among the works it cites.
Sharing and caring: Creating a culture of constructive criticism in computational legal studies
Coupette, C. & Hartung, D · 2022
Later among the works it cites.
An end-to-end pipeline from law text to logical formulas
Ranta, A., Listenmaa, I., Soh, J. & Wong, M. W · 2023
Closest in time.
Gpt as knowledge worker: A zero-shot evaluation of (ai) cpa capabilities
Bommarito, J., Bommarito, M., Katz, D. M. & Katz, J · 2023
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Large language models as corporate lobbyists
Nay, J. J · 2023
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Natural language processing in the legal domain
Katz, D. M., Hartung, D., Gerlach, L., Jana, A. & Bommarito II, M. J · 2023
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A survey of large language models
Zhao, W. X. et al · 2023
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The manifold costs of being a non-native english speaker in science
Amano, T. et al · 2023
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The diminishing returns of masked language models to science
Hong, Z. et al · 2023
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A complexity science approach to law and governance
Vivo, P., Katz, D. M. & Ruhl, J · 2024
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Gpt-4 passes the bar exam
Katz, D. M., Bommarito, M. J., Gao, S. & Arredondo, P · 2024
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Performance enhancement of artificial intelligence: A survey
Krichen, M. & Abdalzaher, M. S · 2024
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Large language models: A survey
Minaee, S. et al · 2024
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Complex: Legal systems through the lens of complexity science
Vivo, P., Katz, D. M. & Ruhl, J · 2025
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Natural language processing for the legal domain: A survey of tasks, datasets, models, and challenges
Ariai, F., Mackenzie, J. & Demartini, G · 2025
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Large language models in legal systems: A survey
Dehghani, F., Dehghani, R., Naderzadeh Ardebili, Y. & Rahnamayan, S · 2025
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Generating case-based legal arguments with llms
Gray, M., Zhang, L. & Ashley, K. D · 2025
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Can large language models unlock novel scientific research ideas?
Kumar, S., Ghosal, T., Goyal, V. & Ekbal, A · 2025
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Natural language processing for the legal domain: A survey of tasks, datasets, models, and challenges
Ariai, F., Mackenzie, J. & Demartini, G · 2025
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Hu, Y. et al · 2026
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