2022

Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Research

Devinney, Hannah, Björklund, Jenny, Björklund, Henrik

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The rise of concern around Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies containing and perpetuating social biases has led to a rich and rapidly growing area of research.

Gender bias is one of the central biases being analyzed, but to date there is no comprehensive analysis of how "gender" is theorized in the field.
We survey nearly 200 articles concerning gender bias in NLP to discover how the field conceptualizes gender both explicitly (e.g.
through definitions of terms) and implicitly (e.g.

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Gender-preserving Debiasing for Pre-trained Word Embeddings. In Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics . Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), Florence, Italy, 1641–1650
Original
Masahiro Kaneko and Danushka Bollegala. 2019 · 1906
Earlier work this paper cites.
Mitigating Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing: Literature Review. In ACL 2019 - 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Proceedings of the Conference . Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), Florence, Italy, 1630–1640
Original
Tony Sun, Andrew Gaut, Shirlyn Tang, Yuxin Huang, Mai ElSherief, Jieyu Zhao, Diba Mirza, Elizabeth Belding, Kai-Wei Chang, and William Yang Wang. 2019 · 1906
Earlier work this paper cites.
A Survey on Bias and Fairness in Machine Learning
Original
Ninareh Mehrabi, Fred Morstatter, Nripsuta Saxena, Kristina Lerman, and Aram Galstyan. 2019 · 1908
Earlier work this paper cites.
Examining Gender Bias in Languages with Grammatical Gender. In EMNLP-IJCNLP 2019 - 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, Proceedings of the Conference . Association for Computational Linguistics, Hong Kong, 5276–5284
Original
Pei Zhou, Weijia Shi, Jieyu Zhao, Kuan-Hao Huang, Muhao Chen, Ryan Cotterell, and Kai-Wei Chang. 2019 · 1909
Earlier work this paper cites.
Social Bias Frames: Reasoning about Social and Power Implications of Language. In Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 5477–5490
Original
Maarten Sap, Saadia Gabriel, Lianhui Qin, Dan Jurafsky, Noah A. Smith, and Yejin Choi. 2020 · 1911
Earlier work this paper cites.
Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective
Donna Haraway. 1988 · 1988
Earlier work this paper cites.
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color
Kimberlé Crenshaw. 1991 · 1991
Earlier work this paper cites.
Myths of Gender (2 ed.)
Anne Fausto-Sterling. 1992 · 1992
Earlier work this paper cites.
Language and Stereotyping
Anne Maass and Luciano Arcuri. 1996 · 1996
Earlier work this paper cites.
Gender Trouble
Judith Butler. 1999 · 1999
Earlier work this paper cites.
Sexing the Body (1 ed.)
Anne Fausto-Sterling. 2000 · 2000
Earlier work this paper cites.
Gender’s nature: Intersexuality, transsexualism, and the ‘sex’/‘gender’ binary
Myra J. Hird. 2000 · 2000
Earlier work this paper cites.
Feminism is for Everybody
bell hooks. 2000 · 2000
Earlier work this paper cites.
Examining Gender and Race Bias in Two Hundred Sentiment Analysis Systems. In Proceedings of the Seventh Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics . Association for Computational Linguistics, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 43–53
Svetlana Kiritchenko and Saif M. Mohammad. 2018 · 2005
Earlier work this paper cites.
Defining and Evaluating Fair Natural Language Generation. In Proceedings of the The Fourth Widening Natural Language Processing Workshop at ACL . Association for Computational Linguistics, Seattle, USA, 107–109
Original
Catherine Yeo and Alyssa Chen. 2020 · 2008
Earlier work this paper cites.
Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity: REport of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
Human Rights Council. 2011 · 2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
The Gap on GAP: Tackling the Problem of Differing Data Distributions in Bias-Measuring Datasets. In Proceedings of the 35th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence‚ AAAI 2021 . AAAI, Online, 9727–9736
Original
Vid Kocijan, Oana-Maria Camburu, and Thomas Lukasiewicz. 2020 · 2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
Framing Intersectionality
Helma Lutz, Maria Teresa Herrera Vivar, and Linda Supik (Eds.). 2011 · 2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
Number of Genders
Greville G. Corbett. 2013 · 2013
Earlier work this paper cites.

Similar

The Work of Representation
Stuart Hall. 2013 · 2013
Cited alongside, same era.
Gender: In World Perspective
Raewyn W. Connell and Rebecca Pearse. 2015 · 2015
Cited alongside, same era.
Man is to computer programmer as woman is to homemaker? Debiasing word embeddings. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems . NeurIPS, Barcelona, Spain, 4356–4364
Original
Tolga Bolukbasi, Kai Wei Chang, James Zou, Venkatesh Saligrama, and Adam Kalai. 2016 · 2016
Cited alongside, same era.
Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases
Aylin Caliskan, Joanna J Bryson, and Arvind Narayanan. 2017 · 2017
Cited alongside, same era.
Gender as a Variable in Natural-Language Processing: Ethical Considerations. In Proceedings of the First ACL Workshop on Ethics in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 1–11
Brian Larson. 2017 · 2017
Cited alongside, same era.
Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency (Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 81) , Sorelle A. Friedler and Christo Wilson (Eds.). PMLR, New York, New York, USA, 77–91
Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru. 2018 · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and ethnic stereotypes
Original
Nikhil Garg, Londa Schiebinger, Dan Jurafsky, and James Zou. 2018 · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
The Misgendering Machines: Trans/HCI Implications of Automatic Gender Recognition
Os Keyes. 2018 · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Deadly Violence Against Transgender People Is on the Rise. The Government Isn’t Helping
Chase Strangio. 2018 · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Learning Gender-Neutral Word Embeddings. In Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Brussels, Belgium, 4847–4853
Jieyu Zhao, Yichao Zhou, Zeyu Li, Wei Wang, and Kai-Wei Chang. 2018 · 2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Syntactic and cognitive issues in investigating gendered coreference
Lauren Ackerman. 2019 · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.
Automatically Inferring Gender Associations from Language. In Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Hong Kong, 5746–5752
Serina Chang and Kathleen McKeown. 2019 · 2019
Cited alongside, same era.

Then

How to do things with gender
Kirby Conrod. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Barcelona, Spain (Online)
Marta R. Costa-jussà, Christian Hardmeier, Will Radford, and Kellie Webster (Eds.). 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Semi-Supervised Topic Modeling for Gender Bias Discovery in English and Swedish. In Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Barcelona, Spain (Online), 79–92
Hannah Devinney, Jenny Björklund, and Henrik Björklund. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Data Feminism
Catherine D’Ignazio and Lauren F Klein. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Queens are powerful too: Mitigating gender bias in dialogue generation. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 8173–8188
Emily Dinan, Angela Fan, Adina Williams, Jack Urbanek, Douwe Kiela, and Jason Weston. 2020a · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Multi-Dimensional Gender Bias Classification. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 314–331
Emily Dinan, Angela Fan, Ledell Wu, Jason Weston, Douwe Kiela, and Adina Williams. 2020b · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Gender Bias in Neural Natural Language Processing
Kaiji Lu, Piotr Mardziel, Fangjing Wu, Preetam Amancharla, and Anupam Datta. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Detecting Independent Pronoun Bias with Partially-Synthetic Data Generation. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), Online, 2011–2017
Robert Munro and Alex (Carmen) Morrison. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Men, trans/masculine, and non-binary people negotiating conception: Normative resistance and inventive pragmatism
Damien W Riggs, Carla A Pfeffer, Ruth Pearce, Sally Hines, and Francis Ray White. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Investigating Gender Bias in Language Models Using Causal Mediation Analysis. In 34th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2020) . NeurIPS, Vancouver, Canada, 14 pages
Jesse Vig, Sebastian Gehrmann, Yonatan Belinkov, Sharon Qian, Daniel Nevo, Yaron Singer, and Stuart Shieber. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Demographics Should Not Be the Reason of Toxicity: Mitigating Discrimination in Text Classifications with Instance Weighting. In Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 4134–4145
Guanhua Zhang, Bing Bai, Junqi Zhang, Kun Bai, Conghui Zhu, and Tiejun Zhao. 2020 · 2020
Later among the works it cites.
Disentangling Document Topic and Author Gender in Multiple Languages: Lessons for Adversarial Debiasing. In Proceedings of the Eleventh Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 50–61
Erenay Dayanık and Sebastian Padó. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in Non-Binary Representation in Language Technologies. In Proceedings ofthe 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online and Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, 1968–1994
Sunipa Dev, Masoud Monajatipoor, Anaelia Ovalle, Arjun Subramonian, Jeff M Phillips, and Kai-Wei Chang. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
Assessing Gender Bias in Wikipedia: Inequalities in Article Titles. In Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics, Online, 75–85
Agnieszka Falenska and Özlem Çetinoğlu. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
The Swedish Winogender Dataset. In Proceedings of the 23rd Nordic Conference on Computational Linguistics (NoDaLiDa) . Linköping University Electronic Press, Sweden, Reykjavik, Iceland (Online), 452–459
Saga Hansson, Konstantinos Mavromatakis, Yvonne Adesam, Gerlof Bouma, and Dana Dannélls. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
Terms of inclusion: Data, discourse, violence
Anna Lauren Hoffmann. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
Evaluating Gender Bias in Hindi-English Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing . Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), Online, 16–23
Krithika Ramesh, Gauri Gupta, and Sanjay Singh. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.
Gender Bias in Machine Translation
Original
Beatrice Savoldi, Marco Gaido, Luisa Bentivogli, Matteo Negri, and Marco Turchi. 2021 · 2021
Later among the works it cites.

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Theories of &#34;Gender&#34; in NLP Bias Research

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Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Research