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Force-directed algorithms are among the most flexible methods for calculating layouts of simple undirected graphs.
How to draw a graph
W. T. Tutte · 1963
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Multidimensional scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to a nonmetric hypothesis
J. B. Kruskal · 1964
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Accel: Automated circuit card etching layout
C. Fisk, D. Caskey, and L. West · 1967
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A force directed component placement procedure for printed circuit boards
N. Quinn and M. Breur · 1979
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Designing network diagrams
J. Kruskal and J. Seery · 1980
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Optimization by simulated annealing
S. Kirkpatrick, C. D. Gelatt, and M. P. Vecchi · 1983
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A heuristic for graph drawing
P. Eades · 1984
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A hierarchical O(N log N) force calculation algorithm
J. Barnes and P. Hut · 1986
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The Rapid Evolution of Potential Fields in Particle Systems
L. Greengard · 1988
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An approximate max-flow min-cut theorem for uniform multicommodity flow problems with applications to approximation algorithms
T. Leighton and S. Rao · 1988
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An algorithm for drawing general undirected graphs
T. Kamada and S. Kawai · 1989
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Introduction to Algorithms
T. H. Cormen, C. E. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, and C. Stein · 1990
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Drawing dynamic trees
S. Moen · 1990
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Graph drawing by force-directed placement
T. Fruchterman and E. Reingold · 1991
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A parallel genetic algorithm for network-diagram layout
C. Kosak, J. Marks, and S. Shieber · 1991
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A framework for dynamic graph drawing
R. F. Cohen, G. D. Battista, R. Tamassia, I. G. Tollis, and P. Bertolazzi · 1992
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Dynamic graph drawings: Trees, series-parallel digraphs, and planar S T ST -digraphs
R. F. Cohen, G. Di Battista, R. Tamassia, and I. G. Tollis · 1995
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Drawing stressed planar graphs in three dimensions
P. Eades and P. Garvan · 1995
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A fast adaptive layout algorithm for undirected graphs
A. Frick, A. Ludwig, and H. Mehldau · 1995
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A focus+context technique based on hyperbolic geometry for visualizing large hierarchies
J. Lamping, R. Rao, and P. Pirolli · 1995
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Fast interactive 3-D graph visualization
I. Bruß and A. Frick · 1996
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Drawing graphs nicely using simulated annealing
R. Davidson and D. Harel · 1996
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Approximation Algorithms for NP-Hard Problems
D. S. Hochbaum · 1996
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Visualizing the structure of the World Wide Web in 3D hyperbolic space
T. Munzner and P. Burchard · 1996
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Incremental layout in DynaDAG
S. C. North · 1996
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Some three-dimensional graph drawing algorithms
D. I. Ostry · 1996
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A genetic algorithm for drawing undirected graphs
J. Branke, F. Bucher, and H. Schmeck · 1997
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Drawing graphs to convey proximity: An incremental arrangement method
J. D. Cohen · 1997
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H3: Laying out large directed graphs in 3D hyperbolic space
T. Munzner · 1997
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Hyperbolic geometry, Möbius transformations, and geometric optimization
D. Eppstein · 2003
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GraphAEL: Graph animations with evolving layouts
C. Erten, P. J. Harding, S. G. Kobourov, K. Wampler, and G. Yee · 2003
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Fundamentals of spherical parameterization for 3D meshes
C. Gotsman, X. Gu, and A. Sheffer · 2003
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A multilevel algorithm for force-directed graph drawing
C. Walshaw · 2003
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Exploring the computing literature using temporal graph visualization
C. Erten, P. J. Harding, S. Kobourov, K. Wampler, and G. Yee · 2004
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graphael: A system for generalized force-directed layouts
D. Forrester, S. G. Kobourov, A. Navabi, K. Wampler, and G. Yee · 2004
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D. Harel and M. Sardas · 1998
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Drawing large graphs with h3viewer and site manager
T. Munzner · 1998
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Graph Drawing: Algorithms for the Visualization of Graphs
G. Di Battista, P. Eades, R. Tamassia, and I. G. Tollis · 1999
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-organizing maps on non-euclidean spaces
H. Ritter · 1999
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The Simple Genetic Algorithm: Foundations and Theory
M. D. Vose · 1999
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A Force-Directed Algorithm that Preserves Edge Crossing Properties
F. Bertault · 2000
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A fast multi-dimensional algorithm for drawing large graphs
P. Gajer, M. T. Goodrich, and S. G. Kobourov · 2004
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Graph drawing by stress minimization
E. Gansner, Y. Koren, and S. North · 2004
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Drawing large graphs woth a potential-field-based multilevel algorithm
S. Hachul and M. Jünger · 2004
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A model for smooth viewing and navigation of large 2D information spaces
J. J. van Wijk and W. A. A. Nuij · 2004
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Visualizing the behaviour of dynamically modifiable code
B. Dux, A. Iyer, S. Debray, D. Forrester, and S. G. Kobourov · 2005
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Curvilinear Graph Drawing Using the Force-Directed Method
B. Finkel and R. Tamassia · 2005
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Efficient and high quality force-directed graph drawing
Y. Hu · 2005
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Non-Euclidean spring embedders
S. G. Kobourov and K. Wampler · 2005
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Eigensolver methods for progressive multidimensional scaling of large data
U. Brandes and C. Pich · 2006
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Energy models for graph clustering
A. Noack · 2007
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Constrained graph layout by stress majorization and gradient projection
T. Dwyer, Y. Koren, and K. Marriott · 2009
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Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks
M. J. M. Bastian, S. Heymann · 2009
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Drawing trees with perfect angular resolution and polynomial area
C. A. Duncan, D. Eppstein, M. T. Goodrich, S. G. Kobourov, and M. Nöllenburg · 2010
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Lombardi drawings of graphs
C. A. Duncan, D. Eppstein, M. T. Goodrich, S. G. Kobourov, and M. Nöllenburg · 2010
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Force-directed lombardi-style graph drawing
R. Chernobelskiy, K. Cunningham, M. T. Goodrich, S. G. Kobourov, and L. Trott · 2011
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ImPrEd: An Im- proved Force-Directed Algorithm that Prevents Nodes from Crossing Edges
D. A. Paolo Simonetto and D. Auber · 2011
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