Actions as Language: Fine-Tuning VLMs into VLAs Without Catastrophic Forgetting

LoRA: Low-rank adaptation of large language models, 2021

Edward J. Hu, Yelong Shen, Phillip Wallis, Zeyuan Allen-Zhu, Yuanzhi Li, Shean Wang, Lu Wang, and Weizhu Chen · 2021

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Do as I can, not as I say: Grounding language in robotic affordances, 2022

Michael Ahn, Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown, Yevgen Chebotar, Omar Cortes, Byron David, Chelsea Finn, Chuyuan Fu, Keerthana Gopalakrishnan, Karol Hausman, Alex Herzog, Daniel Ho, Jasmine Hsu, Julian Ibarz, Brian Ichter, Alex Irpan, Eric Jang, Rosario Jauregui Ruano, Kyle Jeffrey, Sally Jesmonth, Nikhil J Joshi, Ryan Julian, Dmitry Kalashnikov, Yuheng Kuang, Kuang-Huei Lee, Sergey Levine, Yao Lu, Linda Luu, Carolina Parada, Peter Pastor, Jornell Quiambao, Kanishka Rao, Jarek Rettinghouse, Diego Reyes, Pierre Sermanet, Nicolas Sievers, Clayton Tan, Alexander Toshev, Vincent Vanhoucke, Fei Xia, Ted Xiao, Peng Xu, Sichun Xu, Mengyuan Yan, and Andy Zeng · 2022

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Inner monologue: Embodied reasoning through planning with language models, 2022

Wenlong Huang, Fei Xia, Ted Xiao, Harris Chan, Jacky Liang, Pete Florence, Andy Zeng, Jonathan Tompson, Igor Mordatch, Yevgen Chebotar, Pierre Sermanet, Noah Brown, Tomas Jackson, Linda Luu, Sergey Levine, Karol Hausman, and Brian Ichter · 2022

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Socratic models: Composing zero-shot multimodal reasoning with language, 2022

Andy Zeng, Maria Attarian, Brian Ichter, Krzysztof Choromanski, Adrian Wong, Stefan Welker, Federico Tombari, Aveek Purohit, Michael Ryoo, Vikas Sindhwani, Johnny Lee, Vincent Vanhoucke, and Pete Florence · 2022

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RT-1: Robotics transformer for real-world control at scale, 2023

Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown, Justice Carbajal, Yevgen Chebotar, Joseph Dabis, Chelsea Finn, Keerthana Gopalakrishnan, Karol Hausman, Alex Herzog, Jasmine Hsu, Julian Ibarz, Brian Ichter, Alex Irpan, Tomas Jackson, Sally Jesmonth, Nikhil J Joshi, Ryan Julian, Dmitry Kalashnikov, Yuheng Kuang, Isabel Leal, Kuang-Huei Lee, Sergey Levine, Yao Lu, Utsav Malla, Deeksha Manjunath, Igor Mordatch, Ofir Nachum, Carolina Parada, Jodilyn Peralta, Emily Perez, Karl Pertsch, Jornell Quiambao, Kanishka Rao, Michael Ryoo, Grecia Salazar, Pannag Sanketi, Kevin Sayed, Jaspiar Singh, Sumedh Sontakke, Austin Stone, Clayton Tan, Huong Tran, Vincent Vanhoucke, Steve Vega, Quan Vuong, Fei Xia, Ted Xiao, Peng Xu, Sichun Xu, Tianhe Yu, and Brianna Zitkovich · 2023

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RT-2: Vision-language-action models transfer web knowledge to robotic control, 2023

Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown, Justice Carbajal, Yevgen Chebotar, Xi Chen, Krzysztof Choromanski, Tianli Ding, Danny Driess, Avinava Dubey, Chelsea Finn, Pete Florence, Chuyuan Fu, Montse Gonzalez Arenas, Keerthana Gopalakrishnan, Kehang Han, Karol Hausman, Alexander Herzog, Jasmine Hsu, Brian Ichter, Alex Irpan, Nikhil Joshi, Ryan Julian, Dmitry Kalashnikov, Yuheng Kuang, Isabel Leal, Lisa Lee, Tsang-Wei Edward Lee, Sergey Levine, Yao Lu, Henryk Michalewski, Igor Mordatch, Karl Pertsch, Kanishka Rao, Krista Reymann, Michael Ryoo, Grecia Salazar, Pannag Sanketi, Pierre Sermanet, Jaspiar Singh, Anikait Singh, Radu Soricut, Huong Tran, Vincent Vanhoucke, Quan Vuong, Ayzaan Wahid, Stefan Welker, Paul Wohlhart, Jialin Wu, Fei Xia, Ted Xiao, Peng Xu, Sichun Xu, Tianhe Yu, and Brianna Zitkovich · 2023

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PaLM-E: An embodied multimodal language model, 2023

Danny Driess, Fei Xia, Mehdi S. M. Sajjadi, Corey Lynch, Aakanksha Chowdhery, Brian Ichter, Ayzaan Wahid, Jonathan Tompson, Quan Vuong, Tianhe Yu, Wenlong Huang, Yevgen Chebotar, Pierre Sermanet, Daniel Duckworth, Sergey Levine, Vincent Vanhoucke, Karol Hausman, Marc Toussaint, Klaus Greff, Andy Zeng, Igor Mordatch, and Pete Florence · 2023

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Chain-of-thought prompting elicits reasoning in large language models, 2023

Jason Wei, Xuezhi Wang, Dale Schuurmans, Maarten Bosma, Brian Ichter, Fei Xia, Ed Chi, Quoc Le, and Denny Zhou · 2023

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Generalized planning in PDDL domains with pretrained large language models, 2023

Tom Silver, Soham Dan, Kavitha Srinivas, Joshua B. Tenenbaum, Leslie Pack Kaelbling, and Michael Katz · 2023

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Code as policies: Language model programs for embodied control, 2023

Jacky Liang, Wenlong Huang, Fei Xia, Peng Xu, Karol Hausman, Brian Ichter, Pete Florence, and Andy Zeng · 2023

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OpenVLA: An open-source vision-language-action model, 2024

Moo Jin Kim, Karl Pertsch, Siddharth Karamcheti, Ted Xiao, Ashwin Balakrishna, Suraj Nair, Rafael Rafailov, Ethan Foster, Grace Lam, Pannag Sanketi, Quan Vuong, Thomas Kollar, Benjamin Burchfiel, Russ Tedrake, Dorsa Sadigh, Sergey Levine, Percy Liang, and Chelsea Finn · 2024

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π 0 \pi_{0} : A vision-language-action flow model for general robot control, 2024

Kevin Black, Noah Brown, Danny Driess, Adnan Esmail, Michael Equi, Chelsea Finn, Niccolo Fusai, Lachy Groom, Karol Hausman, Brian Ichter, Szymon Jakubczak, Tim Jones, Liyiming Ke, Sergey Levine, Adrian Li-Bell, Mohith Mothukuri, Suraj Nair, Karl Pertsch, Lucy Xiaoyang Shi, James Tanner, Quan Vuong, Anna Walling, Haohuan Wang, and Ury Zhilinsky · 2024

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Open X-Embodiment: Robotic learning datasets and RT-X models

Abhishek Padalkar, Acorn Pooley, Ajinkya Jain, Alex Bewley, Alex Herzog, Alex Irpan, Alexander Khazatsky, Anant Rai, Anikait Singh, Anthony Brohan, et al · 2024

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Run-time observation interventions make vision-language-action models more visually robust, 2024

Asher J. Hancock, Allen Z. Ren, and Anirudha Majumdar · 2024

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CogACT: A foundational vision-language-action model for synergizing cognition and action in robotic manipulation, 2024

Qixiu Li, Yaobo Liang, Zeyu Wang, Lin Luo, Xi Chen, Mozheng Liao, Fangyun Wei, Yu Deng, Sicheng Xu, Yizhong Zhang, Xiaofan Wang, Bei Liu, Jianlong Fu, Jianmin Bao, Dong Chen, Yuanchun Shi, Jiaolong Yang, and Baining Guo · 2024

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3D-VLA: A 3d vision-language-action generative world model, 2024

Haoyu Zhen, Xiaowen Qiu, Peihao Chen, Jincheng Yang, Xin Yan, Yilun Du, Yining Hong, and Chuang Gan · 2024

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Octo: An open-source generalist robot policy, 2024

Octo Model Team, Dibya Ghosh, Homer Walke, Karl Pertsch, Kevin Black, Oier Mees, Sudeep Dasari, Joey Hejna, Tobias Kreiman, Charles Xu, Jianlan Luo, You Liang Tan, Lawrence Yunliang Chen, Pannag Sanketi, Quan Vuong, Ted Xiao, Dorsa Sadigh, Chelsea Finn, and Sergey Levine · 2024

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Yell at your robot: Improving on-the-fly from language corrections, 2024

Lucy Xiaoyang Shi, Zheyuan Hu, Tony Z. Zhao, Archit Sharma, Karl Pertsch, Jianlan Luo, Sergey Levine, and Chelsea Finn · 2024

Cited alongside, same era.

RT-H: Action hierarchies using language, 2024

Suneel Belkhale, Tianli Ding, Ted Xiao, Pierre Sermanet, Quon Vuong, Jonathan Tompson, Yevgen Chebotar, Debidatta Dwibedi, and Dorsa Sadigh · 2024

Cited alongside, same era.

RT-Affordance: Affordances are versatile intermediate representations for robot manipulation, 2024

Soroush Nasiriany, Sean Kirmani, Tianli Ding, Laura Smith, Yuke Zhu, Danny Driess, Dorsa Sadigh, and Ted Xiao · 2024

Cited alongside, same era.

LLARVA: Vision-action instruction tuning enhances robot learning, 2024

Dantong Niu, Yuvan Sharma, Giscard Biamby, Jerome Quenum, Yutong Bai, Baifeng Shi, Trevor Darrell, and Roei Herzig · 2024

Cited alongside, same era.

Bridgedata v2: A dataset for robot learning at scale, 2024

Homer Walke, Kevin Black, Abraham Lee, Moo Jin Kim, Max Du, Chongyi Zheng, Tony Zhao, Philippe Hansen-Estruch, Quan Vuong, Andre He, Vivek Myers, Kuan Fang, Chelsea Finn, and Sergey Levine · 2024

Cited alongside, same era.

FAST: Efficient action tokenization for vision-language-action models, 2025

Karl Pertsch, Kyle Stachowicz, Brian Ichter, Danny Driess, Suraj Nair, Quan Vuong, Oier Mees, Chelsea Finn, and Sergey Levine · 2025

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ChatVLA-2: Vision-language-action model with open-world embodied reasoning from pretrained knowledge, 2025

Zhongyi Zhou, Yichen Zhu, Junjie Wen, Chaomin Shen, and Yi Xu · 2025

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Knowledge insulating vision-language-action models: Train fast, run fast, generalize better, 2025

Danny Driess, Jost Tobias Springenberg, Brian Ichter, Lili Yu, Adrian Li-Bell, Karl Pertsch, Allen Z. Ren, Homer Walke, Quan Vuong, Lucy Xiaoyang Shi, and Sergey Levine · 2025

Closest in time.

Enhancing generalization in vision-language-action models by preserving pretrained representations, 2025

Shresth Grover, Akshay Gopalkrishnan, Bo Ai, Henrik I. Christensen, Hao Su, and Xuanlin Li · 2025

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OneTwoVLA: A unified vision-language-action model with adaptive reasoning, 2025

Fanqi Lin, Ruiqian Nai, Yingdong Hu, Jiacheng You, Junming Zhao, and Yang Gao · 2025