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Large language models (LLMs) have advanced rapidly in recent years, driven by scale, abundant high-quality training data, and reinforcement learning.
Reinforcement learning: An introduction , volume 1
Richard S Sutton, Andrew G Barto, et al · 1998
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Apprenticeship learning via inverse reinforcement learning
Pieter Abbeel and Andrew Y Ng · 2004
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Gödel machines: Fully self-referential optimal universal self-improvers
Jürgen Schmidhuber · 2007
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Playing atari with deep reinforcement learning
Volodymyr Mnih, Koray Kavukcuoglu, David Silver, Alex Graves, Ioannis Antonoglou, Daan Wierstra, and Martin Riedmiller · 2013
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Understanding machine learning: From theory to algorithms
Shai Shalev-Shwartz and Shai Ben-David · 2014
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Trust region policy optimization
John Schulman, Sergey Levine, Pieter Abbeel, Michael Jordan, and Philipp Moritz · 2015
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Improved techniques for training gans
Tim Salimans, Ian Goodfellow, Wojciech Zaremba, Vicki Cheung, Alec Radford, and Xi Chen · 2016
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Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences
Paul F Christiano, Jan Leike, Tom Brown, Miljan Martic, Shane Legg, and Dario Amodei · 2017
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Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks
Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E Hinton · 2017
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The numerics of gans
Lars Mescheder, Sebastian Nowozin, and Andreas Geiger · 2017
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Proximal policy optimization algorithms
John Schulman, Filip Wolski, Prafulla Dhariwal, Alec Radford, and Oleg Klimov · 2017
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Mastering the game of go without human knowledge
David Silver, Julian Schrittwieser, Karen Simonyan, Ioannis Antonoglou, Aja Huang, Arthur Guez, Thomas Hubert, Lucas Baker, Matthew Lai, Adrian Bolton, et al · 2017
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Scalable deep reinforcement learning for vision-based robotic manipulation
Dmitry Kalashnikov, Alex Irpan, Peter Pastor, Julian Ibarz, Alexander Herzog, Eric Jang, Deirdre Quillen, Ethan Holly, Mrinal Kalakrishnan, Vincent Vanhoucke, et al · 2018
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Dota 2 with large scale deep reinforcement learning
Christopher Berner, Greg Brockman, Brooke Chan, Vicki Cheung, Przemyslaw Debiak, Christy Dennison, David Farhi, Quirin Fischer, Shariq Hashme, Chris Hesse, et al · 2019
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Provable self-play algorithms for competitive reinforcement learning
Yu Bai and Chi Jin · 2020
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Denoising diffusion probabilistic models
Jonathan Ho, Ajay Jain, and Pieter Abbeel · 2020
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Trl: Transformer reinforcement learning
Leandro von Werra, Younes Belkada, Lewis Tunstall, Edward Beeching, Tristan Thrush, Nathan Lambert, Shengyi Huang, Kashif Rasul, and Quentin Gallouédec · 2020
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Program synthesis with large language models
Jacob Austin, Augustus Odena, Maxwell Nye, Maarten Bosma, Henryk Michalewski, David Dohan, Ellen Jiang, Carrie Cai, Michael Terry, Quoc Le, et al · 2021
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Evaluating large language models trained on code
Mark Chen · 2021
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Training verifiers to solve math word problems
Karl Cobbe, Vineet Kosaraju, Mohammad Bavarian, Mark Chen, Heewoo Jun, Lukasz Kaiser, Matthias Plappert, Jerry Tworek, Jacob Hilton, Reiichiro Nakano, et al · 2021
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Measuring mathematical problem solving with the math dataset
Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Saurav Kadavath, Akul Arora, Steven Basart, Eric Tang, Dawn Song, and Jacob Steinhardt · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Asymmetric self-play for automatic goal discovery in robotic manipulation
OpenAI OpenAI, Matthias Plappert, Raul Sampedro, Tao Xu, Ilge Akkaya, Vineet Kosaraju, Peter Welinder, Ruben D’Sa, Arthur Petron, Henrique P d O Pinto, et al · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Finetuned language models are zero-shot learners
Jason Wei, Maarten Bosma, Vincent Y Zhao, Kelvin Guu, Adams Wei Yu, Brian Lester, Nan Du, Andrew M Dai, and Quoc V Le · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Large language models can self-improve
Jiaxin Huang, Shixiang Shane Gu, Le Hou, Yuexin Wu, Xuezhi Wang, Hongkun Yu, and Jiawei Han · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-playing adversarial language game enhances llm reasoning
Pengyu Cheng, Yong Dai, Tianhao Hu, Han Xu, Zhisong Zhang, Lei Han, Nan Du, and Xiaolong Li · 2024
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Scaling instruction-finetuned language models
Hyung Won Chung, Le Hou, Shayne Longpre, Barret Zoph, Yi Tay, William Fedus, Yunxuan Li, Xuezhi Wang, Mostafa Dehghani, Siddhartha Brahma, et al · 2024
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The llama 3 herd of models
Abhimanyu Dubey, Abhinav Jauhri, Abhinav Pandey, Abhishek Kadian, Ahmad Al-Dahle, Aiesha Letman, Akhil Mathur, Alan Schelten, Amy Yang, Angela Fan, et al · 2024
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The ai revolution is running out of data. what can researchers do?
Nicola Jones · 2024
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Tulu 3: Pushing frontiers in open language model post-training
Nathan Lambert, Jacob Morrison, Valentina Pyatkin, Shengyi Huang, Hamish Ivison, Faeze Brahman, Lester James V Miranda, Alisa Liu, Nouha Dziri, Shane Lyu, et al · 2024
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A modern self-referential weight matrix that learns to modify itself
Kazuki Irie, Imanol Schlag, Róbert Csordás, and Jürgen Schmidhuber · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-referential meta learning
Louis Kirsch and Jürgen Schmidhuber · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-play psro: Toward optimal populations in two-player zero-sum games
Stephen McAleer, John Banister Lanier, Kevin Wang, Pierre Baldi, Roy Fox, and Tuomas Sandholm · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback
Long Ouyang, Jeffrey Wu, Xu Jiang, Diogo Almeida, Carroll Wainwright, Pamela Mishkin, Chong Zhang, Sandhini Agarwal, Katarina Slama, Alex Ray, et al · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Will we run out of data? limits of llm scaling based on human-generated data
Pablo Villalobos, Anson Ho, Jaime Sevilla, Tamay Besiroglu, Lennart Heim, and Marius Hobbhahn · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-instruct: Aligning language models with self-generated instructions
Yizhong Wang, Yeganeh Kordi, Swaroop Mishra, Alisa Liu, Noah A Smith, Daniel Khashabi, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Josh Achiam, Steven Adler, Sandhini Agarwal, Lama Ahmad, Ilge Akkaya, Florencia Leoni Aleman, Diogo Almeida, Janko Altenschmidt, Sam Altman, Shyamal Anadkat, et al · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Sparks of artificial general intelligence: Early experiments with gpt-4
Sébastien Bubeck, Varun Chandrasekaran, Ronen Eldan, Johannes Gehrke, Eric Horvitz, Ece Kamar, Peter Lee, Yin Tat Lee, Yuanzhi Li, Scott Lundberg, et al · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Llama-3.2-3b-instruct, 2024
Meta · 2024
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Datadreamer: A tool for synthetic data generation and reproducible llm workflows
Ajay Patel, Colin Raffel, and Chris Callison-Burch · 2024
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Rl on incorrect synthetic data scales the efficiency of llm math reasoning by eight-fold
Amrith Setlur, Saurabh Garg, Xinyang Geng, Naman Garg, Virginia Smith, and Aviral Kumar · 2024
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Deepseekmath: Pushing the limits of mathematical reasoning in open language models
Zhihong Shao, Peiyi Wang, Qihao Zhu, Runxin Xu, Junxiao Song, Xiao Bi, Haowei Zhang, Mingchuan Zhang, YK Li, Yang Wu, et al · 2024
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Self-play preference optimization for language model alignment
Yue Wu, Zhiqing Sun, Huizhuo Yuan, Kaixuan Ji, Yiming Yang, and Quanquan Gu · 2024
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Self-rewarding language models
Weizhe Yuan, Richard Yuanzhe Pang, Kyunghyun Cho, Sainbayar Sukhbaatar, Jing Xu, and Jason Weston · 2024
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Datarater: Meta-learned dataset curation
Dan A Calian, Gregory Farquhar, Iurii Kemaev, Luisa M Zintgraf, Matteo Hessel, Jeremy Shar, Junhyuk Oh, András György, Tom Schaul, Jeffrey Dean, et al · 2025
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Self-questioning language models
Lili Chen, Mihir Prabhudesai, Katerina Fragkiadaki, Hao Liu, and Deepak Pathak · 2025
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Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning
Daya Guo, Dejian Yang, Haowei Zhang, Junxiao Song, Ruoyu Zhang, Runxin Xu, Qihao Zhu, Shirong Ma, Peiyi Wang, Xiao Bi, et al · 2025
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R-zero: Self-evolving reasoning llm from zero data
Chengsong Huang, Wenhao Yu, Xiaoyang Wang, Hongming Zhang, Zongxia Li, Ruosen Li, Jiaxin Huang, Haitao Mi, and Dong Yu · 2025
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reward-model-deberta-v3-large-v2
OpenAssistant · 2025
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Welcome to the era of experience
David Silver and Richard S Sutton · 2025
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Absolute zero: Reinforced self-play reasoning with zero data
Andrew Zhao, Yiran Wu, Yang Yue, Tong Wu, Quentin Xu, Matthieu Lin, Shenzhi Wang, Qingyun Wu, Zilong Zheng, and Gao Huang · 2025
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Adam Zweiger, Jyothish Pari, Han Guo, Ekin Akyürek, Yoon Kim, and Pulkit Agrawal · 2025
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