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We study subliminal learning, a surprising phenomenon where language models transmit behavioral traits via semantically unrelated data.
An information-theoretic model for steganography
Christian Cachin · 1998
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Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition
Y. Lecun, L. Bottou, Y. Bengio, and P. Haffner · 1998
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Batch steganography and pooled steganalysis
Andrew D Ker · 2006
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Poisoning attacks against support vector machines
Battista Biggio, Blaine Nelson, and Pavel Laskov · 2012
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Distilling the knowledge in a neural network
Geoffrey Hinton, Oriol Vinyals, and Jeff Dean · 2015
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Hiding images in plain sight: Deep steganography
Shumeet Baluja · 2017
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Certified defenses for data poisoning attacks
Jacob Steinhardt, Pang Wei W Koh, and Percy S Liang · 2017
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Born again neural networks
Tommaso Furlanello, Zachary Lipton, Michael Tschannen, Laurent Itti, and Anima Anandkumar · 2018
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Self-imitation learning
Junhyuk Oh, Yijie Guo, Satinder Singh, and Honglak Lee · 2018
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Model compression via distillation and quantization
Antonio Polino, Razvan Pascanu, and Dan Alistarh · 2018
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Poison frogs! targeted clean-label poisoning attacks on neural networks
Ali Shafahi, W Ronny Huang, Mahyar Najibi, Octavian Suciu, Christoph Studer, Tudor Dumitras, and Tom Goldstein · 2018
Earlier work this paper cites.
Adversarial examples are not bugs, they are features
Andrew Ilyas, Shibani Santurkar, Dimitris Tsipras, Logan Engstrom, Brandon Tran, and Aleksander Madry · 2019
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Neural linguistic steganography
Zachary M Ziegler, Yuntian Deng, and Alexander M Rush · 2019
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Language models are few-shot learners
Tom Brown, Benjamin Mann, Nick Ryder, Melanie Subbiah, Jared D Kaplan, Prafulla Dhariwal, Arvind Neelakantan, Pranav Shyam, Girish Sastry, Amanda Askell, Sandhini Agarwal, Ariel Herbert-Voss, Gretchen Krueger, Tom Henighan, Rewon Child, Aditya Ramesh, Daniel Ziegler, Jeffrey Wu, Clemens Winter, Chris Hesse, Mark Chen, Eric Sigler, Mateusz Litwin, Scott Gray, Benjamin Chess, Jack Clark, Christopher Berner, Sam McCandlish, Alec Radford, Ilya Sutskever, and Dario Amodei · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
Hidden trigger backdoor attacks
Aniruddha Saha, Akshayvarun Subramanya, and Hamed Pirsiavash · 2020
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Training verifiers to solve math word problems
Karl Cobbe, Vineet Kosaraju, Mohammad Bavarian, Mark Chen, Heewoo Jun, Lukasz Kaiser, Matthias Plappert, Jerry Tworek, Jacob Hilton, Reiichiro Nakano, et al · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Concealed data poisoning attacks on nlp models
Eric Wallace, Tony Zhao, Shi Feng, and Sameer Singh · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
TruthfulQA: Measuring how models mimic human falsehoods
Stephanie Lin, Jacob Hilton, and Owain Evans · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
Defining and characterizing reward gaming
Joar Skalse, Nikolaus Howe, Dmitrii Krasheninnikov, and David Krueger · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
RAFT: Reward ranked finetuning for generative foundation model alignment
Hanze Dong, Wei Xiong, Deepanshu Goyal, Yihan Zhang, Winnie Chow, Rui Pan, Shizhe Diao, Jipeng Zhang, KaShun SHUM, and Tong Zhang · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Secret collusion among ai agents: Multi-agent deception via steganography
Sumeet Motwani, Mikhail Baranchuk, Martin Strohmeier, Vijay Bolina, Philip Torr, Lewis Hammond, and Christian Schroeder de Witt · 2024
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Hello gpt-4o
OpenAI · 2024
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Mmlu-pro: A more robust and challenging multi-task language understanding benchmark, 2024
Yubo Wang, Xueguang Ma, Ge Zhang, Yuansheng Ni, Abhranil Chandra, Shiguang Guo, Weiming Ren, Aaran Arulraj, Xuan He, Ziyan Jiang, Tianle Li, Max Ku, Kai Wang, Alex Zhuang, Rongqi Fan, Xiang Yue, and Wenhu Chen · 2024
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Claude 3.7 Sonnet and Claude Code
Anthropic · 2025
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Monitoring reasoning models for misbehavior and the risks of promoting obfuscation
Bowen Baker, Joost Huizinga, Leo Gao, Zehao Dou, Melody Y Guan, Aleksander Madry, Wojciech Zaremba, Jakub Pachocki, and David Farhi · 2025
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Namgyu Ho, Laura Schmid, and Se-Young Yun · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
A watermark for large language models
John Kirchenbauer, Jonas Geiping, Yuxin Wen, Jonathan Katz, Ian Miers, and Tom Goldstein · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Self-instruct: Aligning language models with self-generated instructions
Yizhong Wang, Yeganeh Kordi, Swaroop Mishra, Alisa Liu, Noah A. Smith, Daniel Khashabi, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Dna-gpt: Divergent n-gram analysis for training-free detection of gpt-generated text
Xianjun Yang, Wei Cheng, Yue Wu, Linda Petzold, William Yang Wang, and Haifeng Chen · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Protecting language generation models via invisible watermarking
Xuandong Zhao, Yu-Xiang Wang, and Lei Li · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Undetectable watermarks for language models
Miranda Christ, Sam Gunn, and Or Zamir · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Sycophancy to subterfuge: Investigating reward-tampering in large language models
Carson Denison, Monte MacDiarmid, Fazl Barez, David Duvenaud, Shauna Kravec, Samuel Marks, Nicholas Schiefer, Ryan Soklaski, Alex Tamkin, Jared Kaplan, et al · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Emergent misalignment: Narrow finetuning can produce broadly misaligned llms
Jan Betley, Daniel Tan, Niels Warncke, Anna Sztyber-Betley, Xuchan Bao, Martín Soto, Nathan Labenz, and Owain Evans · 2025
Closest in time.
Thought crime: Backdoors and emergent misalignment in reasoning models
James Chua, Jan Betley, Mia Taylor, and Owain Evans · 2025
Closest in time.
Unnatural languages are not bugs but features for llms
Keyu Duan, Yiran Zhao, Zhili Feng, Jinjie Ni, Tianyu Pang, Qian Liu, Tianle Cai, Longxu Dou, Kenji Kawaguchi, Anirudh Goyal, et al · 2025
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Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning
Daya Guo, Dejian Yang, Haowei Zhang, Junxiao Song, Ruoyu Zhang, Runxin Xu, Qihao Zhu, Shirong Ma, Peiyi Wang, Xiao Bi, et al · 2025
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Distillation robustifies unlearning
Bruce W Lee, Addie Foote, Alex Infanger, Leni Shor, Harish Kamath, Jacob Goldman-Wetzler, Bryce Woodworth, Alex Cloud, and Alexander Matt Turner · 2025
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Supervised Fine -
OpenAI · 2025
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Ep. 64 – gpt-4.1 lead at openai, michelle pokrass: Rft launch, how openai improves its models, the state of ai agents today
Michelle Pokrass · 2025
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Model organisms for emergent misalignment
Edward Turner, Anna Soligo, Mia Taylor, Senthooran Rajamanoharan, and Neel Nanda · 2025
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Persona features control emergent misalignment
Miles Wang, Tom Dupré la Tour, Olivia Watkins, Alex Makelov, Ryan A Chi, Samuel Miserendino, Johannes Heidecke, Tejal Patwardhan, and Dan Mossing · 2025
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Qwen2.5 technical report, 2025
An Yang, Baosong Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chengyuan Li, Dayiheng Liu, Fei Huang, Haoran Wei, Huan Lin, Jian Yang, Jianhong Tu, Jianwei Zhang, Jianxin Yang, Jiaxi Yang, Jingren Zhou, Junyang Lin, Kai Dang, Keming Lu, Keqin Bao, Kexin Yang, Le Yu, Mei Li, Mingfeng Xue, Pei Zhang, Qin Zhu, Rui Men, Runji Lin, Tianhao Li, Tianyi Tang, Tingyu Xia, Xingzhang Ren, Xuancheng Ren, Yang Fan, Yang Su, Yichang Zhang, Yu Wan, Yuqiong Liu, Zeyu Cui, Zhenru Zhang, and Zihan Qiu · 2025
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