Less Data Less Tokens: Multilingual Unification Learning for Efficient Test-Time Reasoning in LLMs

Not all languages are created equal in llms: Improving multilingual capability by cross-lingual-thought prompting

Original

Haoyang Huang, Tianyi Tang, Dongdong Zhang, Wayne Xin Zhao, Ting Song, Yan Xia, and Furu Wei. 2023 · 2023

Earlier work this paper cites.

Test-time adaptation induces stronger accuracy and agreement-on-the-line

Original

Eungyeup Kim, Mingjie Sun, Christina Baek, Aditi Raghunathan, and J. Zico Kolter. 2024 · 2024

Earlier work this paper cites.

Learning to reason with llms

OpenAI. 2024 · 2024

Earlier work this paper cites.

L1: Controlling how long a reasoning model thinks with reinforcement learning

Original

Pranjal Aggarwal and Sean Welleck. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

Do not think that much for 2+3=? on the overthinking of o1-like llms

Original

Xingyu Chen, Jiahao Xu, Tian Liang, Zhiwei He, Jianhui Pang, Dian Yu, Linfeng Song, Qiuzhi Liu, Mengfei Zhou, Zhuosheng Zhang, Rui Wang, Zhaopeng Tu, Haitao Mi, and Dong Yu. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning

Original

DeepSeek-AI, Daya Guo, Dejian Yang, Haowei Zhang, Junxiao Song, Ruoyu Zhang, Runxin Xu, Qihao Zhu, Shirong Ma, Peiyi Wang, Xiao Bi, Xiaokang Zhang, Xingkai Yu, Yu Wu, Z. F. Wu, Zhibin Gou, Zhihong Shao, Zhuoshu Li, Ziyi Gao, Aixin Liu, Bing Xue, Bingxuan Wang, Bochao Wu, Bei Feng, Chengda Lu, Chenggang Zhao, Chengqi Deng, Chenyu Zhang, Chong Ruan, Damai Dai, Deli Chen, Dongjie Ji, Erhang Li, Fangyun Lin, Fucong Dai, Fuli Luo, Guangbo Hao, Guanting Chen, Guowei Li, H. Zhang, Han Bao, Hanwei Xu, Haocheng Wang, Honghui Ding, Huajian Xin, Huazuo Gao, Hui Qu, Hui Li, Jianzhong Guo, Jiashi Li, Jiawei Wang, Jingchang Chen, Jingyang Yuan, Junjie Qiu, Junlong Li, J. L. Cai, Jiaqi Ni, Jian Liang, Jin Chen, Kai Dong, Kai Hu, Kaige Gao, Kang Guan, Kexin Huang, Kuai Yu, Lean Wang, Lecong Zhang, Liang Zhao, Litong Wang, Liyue Zhang, Lei Xu, Leyi Xia, Mingchuan Zhang, Minghua Zhang, Minghui Tang, Meng Li, Miaojun Wang, Mingming Li, Ning Tian, Panpan Huang, Peng Zhang, Qiancheng Wang, Qinyu Chen, Qiushi Du, Ruiqi Ge, Ruisong Zhang, Ruizhe Pan, Runji Wang, R. J. Chen, R. L. Jin, Ruyi Chen, Shanghao Lu, Shangyan Zhou, Shanhuang Chen, Shengfeng Ye, Shiyu Wang, Shuiping Yu, Shunfeng Zhou, Shuting Pan, S. S. Li, Shuang Zhou, Shaoqing Wu, Shengfeng Ye, Tao Yun, Tian Pei, Tianyu Sun, T. Wang, Wangding Zeng, Wanjia Zhao, Wen Liu, Wenfeng Liang, Wenjun Gao, Wenqin Yu, Wentao Zhang, W. L. Xiao, Wei An, Xiaodong Liu, Xiaohan Wang, Xiaokang Chen, Xiaotao Nie, Xin Cheng, Xin Liu, Xin Xie, Xingchao Liu, Xinyu Yang, Xinyuan Li, Xuecheng Su, Xuheng Lin, X. Q. Li, Xiangyue Jin, Xiaojin Shen, Xiaosha Chen, Xiaowen Sun, Xiaoxiang Wang, Xinnan Song, Xinyi Zhou, Xianzu Wang, Xinxia Shan, Y. K. Li, Y. Q. Wang, Y. X. Wei, Yang Zhang, Yanhong Xu, Yao Li, Yao Zhao, Yaofeng Sun, Yaohui Wang, Yi Yu, Yichao Zhang, Yifan Shi, Yiliang Xiong, Ying He, Yishi Piao, Yisong Wang, Yixuan Tan, Yiyang Ma, Yiyuan Liu, Yongqiang Guo, Yuan Ou, Yuduan Wang, Yue Gong, Yuheng Zou, Yujia He, Yunfan Xiong, Yuxiang Luo, Yuxiang You, Yuxuan Liu, Yuyang Zhou, Y. X. Zhu, Yanhong Xu, Yanping Huang, Yaohui Li, Yi Zheng, Yuchen Zhu, Yunxian Ma, Ying Tang, Yukun Zha, Yuting Yan, Z. Z. Ren, Zehui Ren, Zhangli Sha, Zhe Fu, Zhean Xu, Zhenda Xie, Zhengyan Zhang, Zhewen Hao, Zhicheng Ma, Zhigang Yan, Zhiyu Wu, Zihui Gu, Zijia Zhu, Zijun Liu, Zilin Li, Ziwei Xie, Ziyang Song, Zizheng Pan, Zhen Huang, Zhipeng Xu, Zhongyu Zhang, and Zhen Zhang. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

Sample, don’t search: Rethinking test-time alignment for language models

Original

Gonçalo Faria and Noah A. Smith. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

The multilingual mind : A survey of multilingual reasoning in language models

Original

Akash Ghosh, Debayan Datta, Sriparna Saha, and Chirag Agarwal. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

rstar-math: Small llms can master math reasoning with self-evolved deep thinking

Original

Xinyu Guan, Li Lyna Zhang, Yifei Liu, Ning Shang, Youran Sun, Yi Zhu, Fan Yang, and Mao Yang. 2025 · 2025

Earlier work this paper cites.

Adacot: Rethinking cross-lingual factual reasoning through adaptive chain-of-thought

Original

Xin Huang, Tarun Kumar Vangani, Zhengyuan Liu, Bowei Zou, and Ai Ti Aw. 2025 · 2025

Cited alongside, same era.

Test-time compute: from system-1 thinking to system-2 thinking

Original

Yixin Ji, Juntao Li, Hai Ye, Kaixin Wu, Kai Yao, Jia Xu, Linjian Mo, and Min Zhang. 2025 · 2025

Cited alongside, same era.

Bespoke-stratos: The unreasonable effectiveness of reasoning distillation

Bespoke Labs. 2025 · 2025

Cited alongside, same era.

Multi-agent verification: Scaling test-time compute with multiple verifiers

Original

Shalev Lifshitz, Sheila A. McIlraith, and Yilun Du. 2025 · 2025

Cited alongside, same era.

Can 1b llm surpass 405b llm? rethinking compute-optimal test-time scaling

Original

Layalign: Enhancing multilingual reasoning in large language models via layer-wise adaptive fusion and alignment strategy

Original

Zhiwen Ruan, Yixia Li, He Zhu, Longyue Wang, Weihua Luo, Kaifu Zhang, Yun Chen, and Guanhua Chen. 2025 · 2025

Closest in time.

Linguistic generalizability of test-time scaling in mathematical reasoning

Original

Guijin Son, Jiwoo Hong, Hyunwoo Ko, and James Thorne. 2025 · 2025

Closest in time.

Qwq-32b: Embracing the power of reinforcement learning

Qwen Team. 2025 · 2025

Closest in time.

Scaling test-time compute for low-resource languages: Multilingual reasoning in llms

Original

Khanh-Tung Tran, Barry O’Sullivan, and Hoang D. Nguyen. 2025 · 2025

Closest in time.

Sampling-efficient test-time scaling: Self-estimating the best-of-n sampling in early decoding

Original