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For Large Language Models (LLMs) to be reliably deployed in both everyday and high-stakes domains, knowing when not to answer is equally critical as answering correctly.
Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithms
John Schulman, Filip Wolski, Prafulla Dhariwal, Alec Radford, and Oleg Klimov · 2017
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Know What You Don‘t Know: Unanswerable Questions for SQuAD
Pranav Rajpurkar, Robin Jia, and Percy Liang · 2018
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Do ImageNet Classifiers Generalize to ImageNet?
Benjamin Recht, Rebecca Roelofs, Ludwig Schmidt, and Vaishaal Shankar · 2019
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Natural Questions: A Benchmark for Question Answering Research
Tom Kwiatkowski, Jennimaria Palomaki, Olivia Redfield, Michael Collins, Ankur Parikh, Chris Alberti, Danielle Epstein, Illia Polosukhin, Jacob Devlin, Kenton Lee, Kristina Toutanova, Llion Jones, Matthew Kelcey, Ming-Wei Chang, Andrew M. Dai, Jakob Uszkoreit, Quoc Le, and Slav Petrov · 2019
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Measuring Massive Multitask Language Understanding
Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Steven Basart, Andy Zou, Mantas Mazeika, Dawn Song, and Jacob Steinhardt · 2020
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Lucas Beyer, Olivier J. Hénaff, Alexander Kolesnikov, Xiaohua Zhai, and Aäron van den Oord · 2020
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Training Verifiers to Solve Math Word Problems
Karl Cobbe, Vineet Kosaraju, Mohammad Bavarian, Mark Chen, Heewoo Jun, Lukasz Kaiser, Matthias Plappert, Jerry Tworek, Jacob Hilton, Reiichiro Nakano, Christopher Hesse, and John Schulman · 2021
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Measuring Mathematical Problem Solving With the MATH Dataset
Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Saurav Kadavath, Akul Arora, Steven Basart, Eric Tang, Dawn Song, and Jacob Steinhardt · 2021
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A Dataset of Information-Seeking Questions and Answers Anchored in Research Papers
Pradeep Dasigi, Kyle Lo, Iz Beltagy, Arman Cohan, Noah A. Smith, and Matt Gardner · 2021
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SituatedQA: Incorporating Extra-Linguistic Contexts into QA
Michael Zhang and Eunsol Choi · 2021
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Reduced, Reused and Recycled: The Life of a Dataset in Machine Learning Research
Bernard Koch, Emily Denton, Alex Hanna, and Jacob Gates Foster · 2021
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SimCSE: Simple Contrastive Learning of Sentence Embeddings
Tianyu Gao, Xingcheng Yao, and Danqi Chen · 2021
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Teaching Models to Express Their Uncertainty in Words
Stephanie Lin, Jacob Hilton, and Owain Evans · 2022
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Language Models (Mostly) Know What They Know
Saurav Kadavath, Tom Conerly, Amanda Askell, Tom Henighan, Dawn Drain, Ethan Perez, Nicholas Schiefer, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Nova DasSarma, Eli Tran-Johnson, Scott Johnston, Sheer El-Showk, Andy Jones, Nelson Elhage, Tristan Hume, Anna Chen, Yuntao Bai, Sam Bowman, Stanislav Fort, Deep Ganguli, Danny Hernandez, Josh Jacobson, Jackson Kernion, Shauna Kravec, Liane Lovitt, Kamal Ndousse, Catherine Olsson, Sam Ringer, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown, Jack Clark, Nicholas Joseph, Ben Mann, Sam McCandlish, Chris Olah, and Jared Kaplan · 2022
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Star: Bootstrapping reasoning with reasoning
Eric Zelikman, Yuhuai Wu, Jesse Mu, and Noah Goodman · 2022
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Solving Quantitative Reasoning Problems with Language Models
Aitor Lewkowycz, Anders Andreassen, David Dohan, Ethan Dyer, Henryk Michalewski, Vinay Ramasesh, Ambrose Slone, Cem Anil, Imanol Schlag, Theo Gutman-Solo, Yuhuai Wu, Behnam Neyshabur, Guy Gur-Ari, and Vedant Misra · 2022
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BBQ: A hand-built bias benchmark for question answering
Alicia Parrish, Angelica Chen, Nikita Nangia, Vishakh Padmakumar, Jason Phang, Jana Thompson, Phu Mon Htut, and Samuel Bowman · 2022
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Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback
Long Ouyang, Jeffrey Wu, Xu Jiang, Diogo Almeida, Carroll Wainwright, Pamela Mishkin, Chong Zhang, Sandhini Agarwal, Katarina Slama, Alex Ray, John Schulman, Jacob Hilton, Fraser Kelton, Luke Miller, Maddie Simens, Amanda Askell, Peter Welinder, Paul F. Christiano, Jan Leike, and Ryan Lowe · 2022
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MuSiQue: Multihop Questions via Single-hop Question Composition
Harsh Trivedi, Niranjan Balasubramanian, Tushar Khot, and Ashish Sabharwal · 2022
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Large language models in medicine
Arun James Thirunavukarasu, Darren Shu Jeng Ting, Kabilan Elangovan, Laura Gutierrez, Ting Fang Tan, and Daniel Shu Wei Ting · 2023
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Legalbench: A collaboratively built benchmark for measuring legal reasoning in large language models
Neel Guha, Julian Nyarko, Daniel Ho, Christopher Ré, Adam Chilton, Alex Chohlas-Wood, Austin Peters, Brandon Waldon, Daniel Rockmore, Diego Zambrano, et al · 2023
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BloombergGPT: A Large Language Model for Finance
Shijie Wu, Ozan Irsoy, Steven Lu, Vadim Dabravolski, Mark Dredze, Sebastian Gehrmann, Prabhanjan Kambadur, David Rosenberg, and Gideon Mann · 2023
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A survey on hallucination in large language models: Principles, taxonomy, challenges, and open questions
Lei Huang, Weijiang Yu, Weitao Ma, Weihong Zhong, Zhangyin Feng, Haotian Wang, Qianglong Chen, Weihua Peng, Xiaocheng Feng, Bing Qin, and Ting Liu · 2023
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Holistic Evaluation of Language Models
Percy Liang, Rishi Bommasani, Tony Lee, Dimitris Tsipras, Dilara Soylu, Michihiro Yasunaga, Yian Zhang, Deepak Narayanan, Yuhuai Wu, Ananya Kumar, Benjamin Newman, Binhang Yuan, Bobby Yan, Ce Zhang, Christian Cosgrove, Christopher D. Manning, Christopher Ré, Diana Acosta-Navas, Drew A. Hudson, Eric Zelikman, Esin Durmus, Faisal Ladhak, Frieda Rong, Hongyu Ren, Huaxiu Yao, Jue Wang, Keshav Santhanam, Laurel Orr, Lucia Zheng, Mert Yuksekgonul, Mirac Suzgun, Nathan Kim, Neel Guha, Niladri Chatterji, Omar Khattab, Peter Henderson, Qian Huang, Ryan Chi, Sang Michael Xie, Shibani Santurkar, Surya Ganguli, Tatsunori Hashimoto, Thomas Icard, Tianyi Zhang, Vishrav Chaudhary, William Wang, Xuechen Li, Yifan Mai, Yuhui Zhang, and Yuta Koreeda · 2023
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Program of Thoughts Prompting: Disentangling Computation from Reasoning for Numerical Reasoning Tasks
Wenhu Chen, Xueguang Ma, Xinyi Wang, and William W. Cohen · 2023
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Do Large Language Models Know What They Don‘t Know?
Zhangyue Yin, Qiushi Sun, Qipeng Guo, Jiawen Wu, Xipeng Qiu, and Xuanjing Huang · 2023
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The Curious Case of Hallucinatory (Un)answerability: Finding Truths in the Hidden States of Over-Confident Large Language Models
Aviv Slobodkin, Omer Goldman, Avi Caciularu, Ido Dagan, and Shauli Ravfogel · 2023
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Katherine Tian, Eric Mitchell, Allan Zhou, Archit Sharma, Rafael Rafailov, Huaxiu Yao, Chelsea Finn, and Christopher D. Manning · 2023
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MetaMath: Bootstrap Your Own Mathematical Questions for Large Language Models
Longhui Yu, Weisen Jiang, Han Shi, Jincheng Yu, Zhengying Liu, Yu Zhang, James Kwok, Zhenguo Li, Adrian Weller, and Weiyang Liu · 2023
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Let’s Verify Step by Step
Hunter Lightman, Vineet Kosaraju, Yuri Burda, Harrison Edwards, Bowen Baker, Teddy Lee, Jan Leike, John Schulman, Ilya Sutskever, and Karl Cobbe · 2023
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Large Language Models Can Be Easily Distracted by Irrelevant Context
Freda Shi, Xinyun Chen, Kanishka Misra, Nathan Scales, David Dohan, Ed H. Chi, Nathanael Schärli, and Denny Zhou · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
ALCUNA: Large Language Models Meet New Knowledge
Xunjian Yin, Baizhou Huang, and Xiaojun Wan · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Beyond the imitation game: Quantifying and extrapolating the capabilities of language models
Aarohi Srivastava, Abhinav Rastogi, Abhishek Rao, …, Zijie J. Wang, Zirui Wang, and Ziyi Wu · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Won‘t Get Fooled Again: Answering Questions with False Premises
Shengding Hu, Yifan Luo, Huadong Wang, Xingyi Cheng, Zhiyuan Liu, and Maosong Sun · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
FreshLLMs: Refreshing Large Language Models with Search Engine Augmentation
Tu Vu, Mohit Iyyer, Xuezhi Wang, Noah Constant, Jerry Wei, Jason Wei, Chris Tar, Yun-Hsuan Sung, Denny Zhou, Quoc Le, and Thang Luong · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Qwen2.5-Math Technical Report: Toward Mathematical Expert Model via Self-Improvement
An Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bofei Gao, Bowen Yu, Chengpeng Li, Dayiheng Liu, Jianhong Tu, Jingren Zhou, Junyang Lin, Keming Lu, Mingfeng Xue, Runji Lin, Tianyu Liu, Xingzhang Ren, and Zhenru Zhang · 2024
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DeepSeekMath: Pushing the Limits of Mathematical Reasoning in Open Language Models
Zhihong Shao, Peiyi Wang, Qihao Zhu, Runxin Xu, Junxiao Song, Xiao Bi, Haowei Zhang, Mingchuan Zhang, Y. K. Li, Y. Wu, and Daya Guo · 2024
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FrontierMath: A Benchmark for Evaluating Advanced Mathematical Reasoning in AI
Elliot Glazer, Ege Erdil, Tamay Besiroglu, Diego Chicharro, Evan Chen, Alex Gunning, Caroline Falkman Olsson, Jean-Stanislas Denain, Anson Ho, Emily de Oliveira Santos, Olli Järviniemi, Matthew Barnett, Robert Sandler, Matej Vrzala, Jaime Sevilla, Qiuyu Ren, Elizabeth Pratt, Lionel Levine, Grant Barkley, Natalie Stewart, Bogdan Grechuk, Tetiana Grechuk, Shreepranav Varma Enugandla, and Mark Wildon · 2024
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Is Your Model Really A Good Math Reasoner? Evaluating Mathematical Reasoning with Checklist
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Evaluating the Moral Beliefs Encoded in LLMs
Nino Scherrer, Claudia Shi, Amir Feder, and David Blei · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
(QA)^2: Question Answering with Questionable Assumptions
Najoung Kim, Phu Mon Htut, Samuel R. Bowman, and Jackson Petty · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
WorldSense: A Synthetic Benchmark for Grounded Reasoning in Large Language Models
Youssef Benchekroun, Megi Dervishi, Mark Ibrahim, Jean-Baptiste Gaya, Xavier Martinet, Grégoire Mialon, Thomas Scialom, Emmanuel Dupoux, Dieuwke Hupkes, and Pascal Vincent · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Albert Q. Jiang, Alexandre Sablayrolles, Arthur Mensch, Chris Bamford, Devendra Singh Chaplot, Diego de las Casas, Florian Bressand, Gianna Lengyel, Guillaume Lample, Lucile Saulnier, Lélio Renard Lavaud, Marie-Anne Lachaux, Pierre Stock, Teven Le Scao, Thibaut Lavril, Thomas Wang, Timothée Lacroix, and William El Sayed · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Judging LLM-as-a-judge with MT-bench and chatbot arena
Lianmin Zheng, Wei-Lin Chiang, Ying Sheng, Siyuan Zhuang, Zhanghao Wu, Yonghao Zhuang, Zi Lin, Zhuohan Li, Dacheng Li, Eric Xing, Hao Zhang, Joseph E Gonzalez, and Ion Stoica · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Direct Preference Optimization: Your Language Model is Secretly a Reward Model
Rafael Rafailov, Archit Sharma, Eric Mitchell, Stefano Ermon, Christopher D. Manning, and Chelsea Finn · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttention
Woosuk Kwon, Zhuohan Li, Siyuan Zhuang, Ying Sheng, Lianmin Zheng, Cody Hao Yu, Joseph Gonzalez, Hao Zhang, and Ion Stoica · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Zihao Zhou, Shudong Liu, Maizhen Ning, Wei Liu, Jindong Wang, Derek F. Wong, Xiaowei Huang, Qiufeng Wang, and Kaizhu Huang · 2024
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Asir Saadat, Tasmia Binte Sogir, Md Taukir Azam Chowdhury, and Syem Aziz · 2024
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Benchmarking Hallucination in Large Language Models Based on Unanswerable Math Word Problem
YuHong Sun, Zhangyue Yin, Qipeng Guo, Jiawen Wu, Xipeng Qiu, and Hui Zhao · 2024
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MediQ: Question-Asking LLMs and a Benchmark for Reliable Interactive Clinical Reasoning
Shuyue S. Li, Vidhisha Balachandran, Shangbin Feng, Jonathan S. Ilgen, Emma Pierson, Pang W. Koh, and Yulia Tsvetkov · 2024
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Gemini 1.5: Unlocking multimodal understanding across millions of tokens of context
Gemini Team · 2024
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Aaron Grattafiori, Abhimanyu Dubey, Abhinav Jauhri, …, Zhenyu Yang, Zhiwei Zhao, and Zhiyu Ma · 2024
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Qwen2.5: A Party of Foundation Models!
Qwen Team · 2024
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OLMo: Accelerating the Science of Language Models
Dirk Groeneveld, Iz Beltagy, Pete Walsh, Akshita Bhagia, Rodney Kinney, Oyvind Tafjord, Ananya Harsh Jha, Hamish Ivison, Ian Magnusson, Yizhong Wang, Shane Arora, David Atkinson, Russell Authur, Khyathi Raghavi Chandu, Arman Cohan, Jennifer Dumas, Yanai Elazar, Yuling Gu, Jack Hessel, Tushar Khot, William Merrill, Jacob Morrison, Niklas Muennighoff, Aakanksha Naik, Crystal Nam, Matthew E. Peters, Valentina Pyatkin, Abhilasha Ravichander, Dustin Schwenk, Saurabh Shah, Will Smith, Emma Strubell, Nishant Subramani, Mitchell Wortsman, Pradeep Dasigi, Nathan Lambert, Kyle Richardson, Luke Zettlemoyer, Jesse Dodge, Kyle Lo, Luca Soldaini, Noah A. Smith, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi · 2024
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Do LLMs Know When to NOT Answer? Investigating Abstention Abilities of Large Language Models
Nishanth Madhusudhan, Sathwik Tejaswi Madhusudhan, Vikas Yadav, and Masoud Hashemi · 2025
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DeepSeek-R1: Incentivizing Reasoning Capability in LLMs via Reinforcement Learning
DeepSeek-AI · 2025
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Niklas Muennighoff, Zitong Yang, Weijia Shi, Xiang Lisa Li, Li Fei-Fei, Hannaneh Hajishirzi, Luke Zettlemoyer, Percy Liang, Emmanuel Candès, and Tatsunori Hashimoto · 2025
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QuestBench: Can LLMs ask the right question to acquire information in reasoning tasks?
Belinda Z. Li, Been Kim, and Zi Wang · 2025
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Know Your Limits: A Survey of Abstention in Large Language Models
Bingbing Wen, Jihan Yao, Shangbin Feng, Chenjun Xu, Yulia Tsvetkov, Bill Howe, and Lucy Lu Wang · 2025
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Hallucination is Inevitable: An Innate Limitation of Large Language Models
Ziwei Xu, Sanjay Jain, and Mohan Kankanhalli · 2025
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HalluLens: LLM Hallucination Benchmark
Yejin Bang, Ziwei Ji, Alan Schelten, Anthony Hartshorn, Tara Fowler, Cheng Zhang, Nicola Cancedda, and Pascale Fung · 2025
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Calibrating Verbal Uncertainty as a Linear Feature to Reduce Hallucinations
Ziwei Ji, Lei Yu, Yeskendir Koishekenov, Yejin Bang, Anthony Hartshorn, Alan Schelten, Cheng Zhang, Pascale Fung, and Nicola Cancedda · 2025
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WizardMath: Empowering Mathematical Reasoning for Large Language Models via Reinforced Evol-Instruct
Haipeng Luo, Qingfeng Sun, Can Xu, Pu Zhao, Jianguang Lou, Chongyang Tao, Xiubo Geng, Qingwei Lin, Shifeng Chen, Yansong Tang, and Dongmei Zhang · 2025
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Challenging the Boundaries of Reasoning: An Olympiad-Level Math Benchmark for Large Language Models
Haoxiang Sun, Yingqian Min, Zhipeng Chen, Wayne Xin Zhao, Lei Fang, Zheng Liu, Zhongyuan Wang, and Ji-Rong Wen · 2025
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Matharena: Evaluating llms on uncontaminated math competitions
Mislav Balunović, Jasper Dekoninck, Ivo Petrov, Nikola Jovanović, and Martin Vechev · 2025
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Large Language Models Struggle with Unreasonability in Math Problems
Jingyuan Ma, Damai Dai, Zihang Yuan, Rui li, Weilin Luo, Bin Wang, Qun Liu, Lei Sha, and Zhifang Sui · 2025
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A. M. Muntasir Rahman, Junyi Ye, Wei Yao, Sierra S. Liu, Jesse Yu, Jonathan Yu, Wenpeng Yin, and Guiling Wang · 2025
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TreeCut: A Synthetic Unanswerable Math Word Problem Dataset for LLM Hallucination Evaluation
Jialin Ouyang · 2025
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Tulu 3: Pushing Frontiers in Open Language Model Post-Training
Nathan Lambert, Jacob Morrison, Valentina Pyatkin, Shengyi Huang, Hamish Ivison, Faeze Brahman, Lester James V. Miranda, Alisa Liu, Nouha Dziri, Shane Lyu, Yuling Gu, Saumya Malik, Victoria Graf, Jena D. Hwang, Jiangjiang Yang, Ronan Le Bras, Oyvind Tafjord, Chris Wilhelm, Luca Soldaini, Noah A. Smith, Yizhong Wang, Pradeep Dasigi, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi · 2025
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Judging the Judges: Evaluating Alignment and Vulnerabilities in LLMs-as-Judges
Aman Singh Thakur, Kartik Choudhary, Venkat Srinik Ramayapally, Sankaran Vaidyanathan, and Dieuwke Hupkes · 2025
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Improving LLM-as-a-Judge Inference with the Judgment Distribution
Victor Wang, Michael J. Q. Zhang, and Eunsol Choi · 2025
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Dynamic Early Exit in Reasoning Models
Chenxu Yang, Qingyi Si, Yongjie Duan, Zheliang Zhu, Chenyu Zhu, Qiaowei Li, Zheng Lin, Li Cao, and Weiping Wang · 2025
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