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Sparse large language models (LLMs) with Mixture of Experts (MoE) and close to a trillion parameters are dominating the realm of most capable language models.
Training deep nets with sublinear memory cost, 2016
Tianqi Chen, Bing Xu, Chiyuan Zhang, and Carlos Guestrin · 2016
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Training deeper models by gpu memory optimization on tensorflow
Chen Meng, Minmin Sun, Jun Yang, Minghui Qiu, and Yang Gu · 2017
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Outrageously large neural networks: The sparsely-gated mixture-of-experts layer
Noam Shazeer, Azalia Mirhoseini, Krzysztof Maziarz, Andy Davis, Quoc Le, Geoffrey Hinton, and Jeff Dean · 2017
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Gpipe: Efficient training of giant neural networks using pipeline parallelism, 2019
Yanping Huang, Youlong Cheng, Ankur Bapna, Orhan Firat, Mia Xu Chen, Dehao Chen, HyoukJoong Lee, Jiquan Ngiam, Quoc V. Le, Yonghui Wu, and Zhifeng Chen · 2019
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Tflms: Large model support in tensorflow by graph rewriting, 2019
Tung D. Le, Haruki Imai, Yasushi Negishi, and Kiyokuni Kawachiya · 2019
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Davinci: A scalable architecture for neural network computing
Heng Liao, Jiajin Tu, Jing Xia, and Xiping Zhou · 2019
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Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer
Colin Raffel, Noam Shazeer, Adam Roberts, Katherine Lee, Sharan Narang, Michael Matena, Yanqi Zhou, Wei Li, and Peter J. Liu · 2019
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Megatron-lm: Training multi-billion parameter language models using model parallelism
Mohammad Shoeybi, Mostofa Patwary, Raul Puri, Patrick LeGresley, Jared Casper, and Bryan Catanzaro · 2019
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Measuring massive multitask language understanding
Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Steven Basart, Andy Zou, Mantas Mazeika, Dawn Song, and Jacob Steinhardt · 2020
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Swapadvisor: Pushing deep learning beyond the gpu memory limit via smart swapping
Chien-Chin Huang, Gu Jin, and Jinyang Li · 2020
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Scaling laws for neural language models
Jared Kaplan, Sam McCandlish, Tom Henighan, Tom B Brown, Benjamin Chess, Rewon Child, Scott Gray, Alec Radford, Jeffrey Wu, and Dario Amodei · 2020
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Gshard: Scaling giant models with conditional computation and automatic sharding, 2020
Dmitry Lepikhin, HyoukJoong Lee, Yuanzhong Xu, Dehao Chen, Orhan Firat, Yanping Huang, Maxim Krikun, Noam Shazeer, and Zhifeng Chen · 2020
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The depth-to-width interplay in self-attention
Yoav Levine, Noam Wies, Or Sharir, Hofit Bata, and Amnon Shashua · 2020
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Mgpu-tsm: A multi-gpu system with truly shared memory
Saiful A Mojumder, Yifan Sun, Leila Delshadtehrani, Yenai Ma, Trinayan Baruah, José L Abellán, John Kim, David Kaeli, and Ajay Joshi · 2020
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Capuchin: Tensor-based gpu memory management for deep learning
Xuan Peng, Xuanhua Shi, Hulin Dai, Hai Jin, Weiliang Ma, Qian Xiong, Fan Yang, and Xuehai Qian · 2020
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Zero: Memory optimizations toward training trillion parameter models, 2020
Samyam Rajbhandari, Jeff Rasley, Olatunji Ruwase, and Yuxiong He · 2020
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Megatron-lm: Training multi-billion parameter language models using model parallelism, 2020
Mohammad Shoeybi, Mostofa Patwary, Raul Puri, Patrick LeGresley, Jared Casper, and Bryan Catanzaro · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
Megatron-lm: Training multi-billion parameter language models using model parallelism, 2020
Mohammad Shoeybi, Mostofa Patwary, Raul Puri, Patrick LeGresley, Jared Casper, and Bryan Catanzaro · 2020
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Clue: A chinese language understanding evaluation benchmark
Liang Xu, Hai Hu, Xuanwei Zhang, Lu Li, Chenjie Cao, Yudong Li, Yechen Xu, Kai Sun, Dian Yu, Cong Yu, et al · 2020
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Program synthesis with large language models
Jacob Austin, Augustus Odena, Maxwell Nye, Maarten Bosma, Henryk Michalewski, David Dohan, Ellen Jiang, Carrie Cai, Michael Terry, Quoc Le, et al · 2021
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What disease does this patient have? a large-scale open domain question answering dataset from medical exams
Di Jin, Eileen Pan, Nassim Oufattole, Wei-Hung Weng, Hanyi Fang, and Peter Szolovits · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Efficient large-scale language model training on gpu clusters using megatron-lm
Deepak Narayanan, Mohammad Shoeybi, Jared Casper, Patrick LeGresley, Mostofa Patwary, Vijay Korthikanti, Dmitri Vainbrand, Prethvi Kashinkunti, Julie Bernauer, Bryan Catanzaro, et al · 2021
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Efficient large-scale language model training on gpu clusters using megatron-lm, 2021
Deepak Narayanan, Mohammad Shoeybi, Jared Casper, Patrick LeGresley, Mostofa Patwary, Vijay Anand Korthikanti, Dmitri Vainbrand, Prethvi Kashinkunti, Julie Bernauer, Bryan Catanzaro, Amar Phanishayee, and Matei Zaharia · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Switch transformers: Scaling to trillion parameter models with simple and efficient sparsity
William Fedus, Barret Zoph, and Noam Shazeer · 2022
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Reducing activation recomputation in large transformer models, 2022
Vijay Korthikanti, Jared Casper, Sangkug Lym, Lawrence McAfee, Michael Andersch, Mohammad Shoeybi, and Bryan Catanzaro · 2022
Locmoe: A low-overhead moe for large language model training
Jing Li, Zhijie Sun, Xuan He, Li Zeng, Yi Lin, Entong Li, Binfan Zheng, Rongqian Zhao, and Xin Chen · 2024
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Deepseek-v2: A strong, economical, and efficient mixture-of-experts language model
Aixin Liu, Bei Feng, Bin Wang, Bingxuan Wang, Bo Liu, Chenggang Zhao, Chengqi Dengr, Chong Ruan, Damai Dai, Daya Guo, et al · 2024
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Aixin Liu, Bei Feng, Bing Xue, Bingxuan Wang, Bochao Wu, Chengda Lu, Chenggang Zhao, Chengqi Deng, Chenyu Zhang, Chong Ruan, et al · 2024
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Liyuan Liu, Young Jin Kim, Shuohang Wang, Chen Liang, Yelong Shen, Hao Cheng, Xiaodong Liu, Masahiro Tanaka, Xiaoxia Wu, Wenxiang Hu, et al · 2024
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Medmcqa: A large-scale multi-subject multi-choice dataset for medical domain question answering
Ankit Pal, Logesh Kumar Umapathi, and Malaikannan Sankarasubbu · 2022
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Gqa: Training generalized multi-query transformer models from multi-head checkpoints, 2023
Joshua Ainslie, James Lee-Thorp, Michiel de Jong, Yury Zemlyanskiy, Federico Lebrón, and Sumit Sanghai · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Megablocks: Efficient sparse training with mixture-of-experts
Trevor Gale, Deepak Narayanan, Cliff Young, and Matei Zaharia · 2023
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C-eval: A multi-level multi-discipline chinese evaluation suite for foundation models
Yuzhen Huang, Yuzhuo Bai, Zhihao Zhu, Junlei Zhang, Jinghan Zhang, Tangjun Su, Junteng Liu, Chuancheng Lv, Yikai Zhang, Yao Fu, et al · 2023
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Calculon: a methodology and tool for high-level co-design of systems and large language models
Mikhail Isaev, Nic Mcdonald, Larry Dennison, and Richard Vuduc · 2023
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Deepspeed ulysses: System optimizations for enabling training of extreme long sequence transformer models, 2023
Sam Ade Jacobs, Masahiro Tanaka, Chengming Zhang, Minjia Zhang, Shuaiwen Leon Song, Samyam Rajbhandari, and Yuxiong He · 2023
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Let’s verify step by step
Hunter Lightman, Vineet Kosaraju, Yuri Burda, Harrison Edwards, Bowen Baker, Teddy Lee, Jan Leike, John Schulman, Ilya Sutskever, and Karl Cobbe · 2023
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Codeforces
MAA · 2024
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Olmoe: Open mixture-of-experts language models
Niklas Muennighoff, Luca Soldaini, Dirk Groeneveld, Kyle Lo, Jacob Morrison, Sewon Min, Weijia Shi, Pete Walsh, Oyvind Tafjord, Nathan Lambert, et al · 2024
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Gpqa: A graduate-level google-proof q&a benchmark
David Rein, Betty Li Hou, Asa Cooper Stickland, Jackson Petty, Richard Yuanzhe Pang, Julien Dirani, Julian Michael, and Samuel R Bowman · 2024
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Hunyuan-large: An open-source moe model with 52 billion activated parameters by tencent
Xingwu Sun, Yanfeng Chen, Yiqing Huang, Ruobing Xie, Jiaqi Zhu, Kai Zhang, Shuaipeng Li, Zhen Yang, Jonny Han, Xiaobo Shu, et al · 2024
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Qwen1.5-moe: Matching 7b model performance with 1/3 activated parameters", February 2024
Qwen Team · 2024
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Mmlu-pro: A more robust and challenging multi-task language understanding benchmark
Yubo Wang, Xueguang Ma, Ge Zhang, Yuansheng Ni, Abhranil Chandra, Shiguang Guo, Weiming Ren, Aaran Arulraj, Xuan He, Ziyan Jiang, et al · 2024
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Skywork-moe: A deep dive into training techniques for mixture-of-experts language models
Tianwen Wei, Bo Zhu, Liang Zhao, Cheng Cheng, Biye Li, Weiwei Lü, Peng Cheng, Jianhao Zhang, Xiaoyu Zhang, Liang Zeng, et al · 2024
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An Yang, Baosong Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chengyuan Li, Dayiheng Liu, Fei Huang, Haoran Wei, et al · 2024
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An Yang, Baosong Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chengyuan Li, Dayiheng Liu, Fei Huang, Haoran Wei, et al · 2024
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The llama 4 herd: The beginning of a new era of natively multimodal ai innovation, 2025
Meta AI · 2025
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Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning, 2025
DeepSeek-AI · 2025
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Minimax-01: Scaling foundation models with lightning attention
Aonian Li, Bangwei Gong, Bo Yang, Boji Shan, Chang Liu, Cheng Zhu, Chunhao Zhang, Congchao Guo, Da Chen, Dong Li, et al · 2025
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Codeforces
MAA · 2025
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Zihan Qiu, Zeyu Huang, Bo Zheng, Kaiyue Wen, Zekun Wang, Rui Men, Ivan Titov, Dayiheng Liu, Jingren Zhou, and Junyang Lin · 2025
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Pangu ultra: Pushing the limits of dense large language models on ascend npus
Yichun Yin, Wenyong Huang, Kaikai Song, Yehui Tang, Xueyu Wu, Wei Guo, Peng Guo, Yaoyuan Wang, Xiaojun Meng, Yasheng Wang, et al · 2025
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