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Large-scale foundation models in Earth Observation can learn versatile, label-efficient representations by leveraging massive amounts of unlabeled data.
An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm
Eric Dinerstein, David Olson, Anup Joshi, Carly Vynne, Neil D Burgess, Eric Wikramanayake, Nathan Hahn, Suzanne Palminteri, Prashant Hedao, Reed Noss, et al · 2017
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Spacenet: A remote sensing dataset and challenge series
Adam Van Etten, Dave Lindenbaum, and Todd M Bacastow · 2018
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Semantic segmentation of crop type in africa: A novel dataset and analysis of deep learning methods
Rose M Rustowicz, Robin Cheong, Lijing Wang, Stefano Ermon, Marshall Burke, and David Lobell · 2019
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Michael Schmitt, Lloyd Haydn Hughes, Chunping Qiu, and Xiao Xiang Zhu · 2019
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Bigearthnet: A large-scale benchmark archive for remote sensing image understanding
Gencer Sumbul, Marcela Charfuelan, Begüm Demir, and Volker Markl · 2019
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So2sat lcz42: A benchmark dataset for global local climate zones classification
Xiao Xiang Zhu, Jingliang Hu, Chunping Qiu, Yilei Shi, Jian Kang, Lichao Mou, Hossein Bagheri, Matthias Häberle, Yuansheng Hua, Rong Huang, et al · 2019
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Sen1Floods11: A georeferenced dataset to train and test deep learning flood algorithms for sentinel-1
Derrick Bonafilia, Beth Tellman, Tyler Anderson, and Erica Issenberg · 2020
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Copernicus global land service: land cover 100 m: collection 3: epoch 2019: Globe
Marcel Buchhorn, Bruno Smets, Luc Bertels, Bert De Roo, Myroslava Lesiv, Nandin-Erdene Tsendbazar, Martin Herold, and Steffen Fritz · 2020
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An image is worth 16x16 words: Transformers for image recognition at scale
Alexey Dosovitskiy, Lucas Beyer, Alexander Kolesnikov, Dirk Weissenborn, Xiaohua Zhai, Thomas Unterthiner, Mostafa Dehghani, Matthias Minderer, Georg Heigold, Sylvain Gelly, et al · 2020
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Sentinel-2 products specification document
ESA · 2021
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Panoptic segmentation of satellite image time series with convolutional temporal attention networks
Vivien Sainte Fare Garnot and Loic Landrieu · 2021
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Bigearthnet-mm: A large-scale, multimodal, multilabel benchmark archive for remote sensing image classification and retrieval [software and data sets]
Gencer Sumbul, Arne De Wall, Tristan Kreuziger, Filipe Marcelino, Hugo Costa, Pedro Benevides, Mario Caetano, Begüm Demir, and Volker Markl · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Dynamic world, near real-time global 10 m land use land cover mapping
Christopher F Brown, Steven P Brumby, Brookie Guzder-Williams, Tanya Birch, Samantha Brooks Hyde, Joseph Mazzariello, Wanda Czerwinski, Valerie J Pasquarella, Robert Haertel, Simon Ilyushchenko, et al · 2022
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Satlaspretrain: A large-scale dataset for remote sensing image understanding
Favyen Bastani, Piper Wolters, Ritwik Gupta, Joe Ferdinando, and Aniruddha Kembhavi · 2023
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Foundation models for generalist geospatial artificial intelligence
Johannes Jakubik, S Roy, CE Phillips, P Fraccaro, D Godwin, B Zadrozny, D Szwarcman, C Gomes, G Nyirjesy, B Edwards, et al · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
A high-resolution canopy height model of the earth
Croma: Remote sensing representations with contrastive radar-optical masked autoencoders
Anthony Fuller, Koreen Millard, and James Green · 2024
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Bridging remote sensors with multisensor geospatial foundation models
Boran Han, Shuai Zhang, Xingjian Shi, and Markus Reichstein · 2024
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Detecting marine pollutants and sea surface features with deep learning in sentinel-2 imagery
Katerina Kikaki, Ioannis Kakogeorgiou, Ibrahim Hoteit, and Konstantinos Karantzalos · 2024
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Pangaea: A global and inclusive benchmark for geospatial foundation models
Valerio Marsocci, Yuru Jia, Georges Le Bellier, David Kerekes, Liang Zeng, Sebastian Hafner, Sebastian Gerard, Eric Brune, Ritu Yadav, Ali Shibli, et al · 2024
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Mmearth: Exploring multi-modal pretext tasks for geospatial representation learning
Vishal Nedungadi, Ankit Kariryaa, Stefan Oehmcke, Serge Belongie, Christian Igel, and Nico Lang · 2024
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Nico Lang, Walter Jetz, Konrad Schindler, and Jan Dirk Wegner · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
4m: Massively multimodal masked modeling
David Mizrahi, Roman Bachmann, Oguzhan Kar, Teresa Yeo, Mingfei Gao, Afshin Dehghan, and Amir Zamir · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
HLS Foundation Burnscars Dataset, 2023
Christopher Phillips, Sujit Roy, Kumar Ankur, and Rahul Ramachandran · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Anysat: An earth observation model for any resolutions, scales, and modalities
Guillaume Astruc, Nicolas Gonthier, Clement Mallet, and Loic Landrieu · 2024
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Clay Foundation Model, 2024
Clay Foundation · 2024
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Sensor independent cloud and shadow masking with partial labels and multimodal inputs
Alistair Francis · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Major tom: Expandable datasets for earth observation
Alistair Francis and Mikolaj Czerkawski · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Decur: decoupling common & unique representations for multimodal self-supervision
Yi Wang, Conrad M Albrecht, Nassim Ait Ali Braham, Chenying Liu, Zhitong Xiong, and Xiao Xiang Zhu
Cited in the paper.
Later among the works it cites.
Prithvi-eo-2.0: A versatile multi-temporal foundation model for earth observation applications
Daniela Szwarcman, Sujit Roy, Paolo Fraccaro, Porsteinn Elí Gíslason, Benedikt Blumenstiel, Rinki Ghosal, Pedro Henrique de Oliveira, Joao Lucas de Sousa Almeida, Rocco Sedona, Yanghui Kang, et al · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Neural plasticity-inspired foundation model for observing the earth crossing modalities
Zhitong Xiong, Yi Wang, Fahong Zhang, Adam J Stewart, Joëlle Hanna, Damian Borth, Ioannis Papoutsis, Bertrand Le Saux, Gustau Camps-Valls, and Xiao Xiang Zhu · 2024
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Ssl4eo-s12 v1.1: A multimodal, multiseasonal dataset for pretraining, updated
Benedikt Blumenstiel, Nassim Ait Ali Braham, Conrad M Albrecht, Stefano Maurogiovanni, and Paolo Fraccaro · 2025
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Terramind: Large-scale generative multimodality for earth observation
Johannes Jakubik, Felix Yang, Benedikt Blumenstiel, Erik Scheurer, Rocco Sedona, Stefano Maurogiovanni, Jente Bosmans, Nikolaos Dionelis, Valerio Marsocci, Niklas Kopp, et al · 2025
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Galileo: Learning global and local features in pretrained remote sensing models
Gabriel Tseng, Anthony Fuller, Marlena Reil, Henry Herzog, Patrick Beukema, Favyen Bastani, James R Green, Evan Shelhamer, Hannah Kerner, and David Rolnick · 2025
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