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Cultural Intelligence (CQ) refers to the ability to understand unfamiliar cultural contexts, a crucial skill for large language models (LLMs) to effectively engage with globally diverse users.
Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures
P Christopher Earley and Soon Ang. 2003 · 2003
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Are cultural values the same as the values of individuals? an examination of similarities in personal, social and cultural value structures
Ronald Fischer and Ype H Poortinga. 2012 · 2012
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A diversity-promoting objective function for neural conversation models
Jiwei Li, Michel Galley, Chris Brockett, Jianfeng Gao, and Bill Dolan. 2016 · 2016
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Lora: Low-rank adaptation of large language models
Edward J. Hu, Yelong Shen, Phillip Wallis, Zeyuan Allen-Zhu, Yuanzhi Li, Shean Wang, Lu Wang, and Weizhu Chen. 2021 · 2021
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Augmented SBERT: Data augmentation method for improving bi-encoders for pairwise sentence scoring tasks
Nandan Thakur, Nils Reimers, Johannes Daxenberger, and Iryna Gurevych. 2021 · 2021
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Normsage: Multi-lingual multi-cultural norm discovery from conversations on-the-fly
Yi R Fung, Tuhin Chakraborty, Hao Guo, Owen Rambow, Smaranda Muresan, and Heng Ji. 2022 · 2022
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World values survey wave 7 (2017-2022) cross-national data-set
Christian Haerpfer, Ronald Inglehart, Alejandro Moreno, Christian Welzel, Kseniya Kizilova, Jaime Diez-Medrano, Marta Lagos, Pippa Norris, Eduard Ponarin, and Bi Puranen. 2022 · 2022
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The Ghost in the Machine has an American accent: value conflict in GPT-3
Rebecca L. Johnson, Giada Pistilli, Natalia Menédez-González, Leslye Denisse Dias Duran, Enrico Panai, Julija Kalpokiene, and Donald Jay Bertulfo. 2022 · 2022
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Persianllama: Towards building first persian large language model
Mohammad Amin Abbasi, Arash Ghafouri, Mahdi Firouzmandi, Hassan Naderi, and Behrouz Minaei Bidgoli. 2023 · 2023
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Jinze Bai, Shuai Bai, Yunfei Chu, Zeyu Cui, Kai Dang, Xiaodong Deng, Yang Fan, Wenbin Ge, Yu Han, Fei Huang, Binyuan Hui, Luo Ji, Mei Li, Junyang Lin, Runji Lin, Dayiheng Liu, Gao Liu, Chengqiang Lu, Keming Lu, and 29 others. 2023 · 2023
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Towards measuring the representation of subjective global opinions in language models
Esin Durmus, Karina Nyugen, Thomas I. Liao, Nicholas Schiefer, Amanda Askell, Anton Bakhtin, Carol Chen, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny Hernandez, Nicholas Joseph, Liane Lovitt, Sam McCandlish, Orowa Sikder, Alex Tamkin, Janel Thamkul, Jared Kaplan, Jack Clark, and Deep Ganguli. 2023 · 2023
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Semeval-2023 task 4: Valueeval: Identification of human values behind arguments
Johannes Kiesel, Milad Alshomary, Nailia Mirzakhmedova, Maximilian Heinrich, Nicolas Handke, Henning Wachsmuth, and Benno Stein. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Aochong Li, Mallika Subramanian, Arkadiy Saakyan, Sky CH-Wang, and S. Muresan. 2023 · 2023
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Taiwan llm: Bridging the linguistic divide with a culturally aligned language model
Yen-Ting Lin and Yun-Nung Chen. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Seallms–large language models for southeast asia
Xuan-Phi Nguyen, Wenxuan Zhang, Xin Li, Mahani Aljunied, Zhiqiang Hu, Chenhui Shen, Yew Ken Chia, Xingxuan Li, Jianyu Wang, Qingyu Tan, and 1 others. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Judging llm-as-a-judge with mt-bench and chatbot arena
Lianmin Zheng, Wei-Lin Chiang, Ying Sheng, Siyuan Zhuang, Zhanghao Wu, Yonghao Zhuang, Zi Lin, Zhuohan Li, Dacheng Li, Eric Xing, and 1 others. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
On Cultural Intelligence in LLM-Based Chatbots: Implications for Artificial Intelligence in Education
Emmanuel G. Blanchard and Phaedra Mohammed. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Enhancing llm-based human-robot interaction with nuances for diversity awareness
Lucrezia Grassi, Carmine Tommaso Recchiuto, and Antonio Sgorbissa. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Aaron Grattafiori, Abhimanyu Dubey, Abhinav Jauhri, Abhinav Pandey, Abhishek Kadian, Ahmad Al-Dahle, Aiesha Letman, Akhil Mathur, Alan Schelten, Alex Vaughan, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
On the humanity of conversational ai: Evaluating the psychological portrayal of llms
Jen-tse Huang, Wenxuan Wang, Eric John Li, Man Ho Lam, Shujie Ren, Youliang Yuan, Wenxiang Jiao, Zhaopeng Tu, and Michael Lyu. 2024 · 2024
Not all countries celebrate thanksgiving: On the cultural dominance in large language models
Wenxuan Wang, Wenxiang Jiao, Jingyuan Huang, Ruyi Dai, Jen-tse Huang, Zhaopeng Tu, and Michael Lyu. 2024 · 2024
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CLAVE: An Adaptive Framework for Evaluating Values of LLM Generated Responses
Jing Yao, Xiaoyuan Yi, and Xing Xie. 2024 · 2024
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ValueDCG: Measuring Comprehensive Human Value Understanding Ability of Language Models
Zhaowei Zhang, Fengshuo Bai, Jun Gao, and Yaodong Yang. 2024 · 2024
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Llamafactory: Unified efficient fine-tuning of 100+ language models
Yaowei Zheng, Richong Zhang, Junhao Zhang, Yanhan Ye, Zheyan Luo, Zhangchi Feng, and Yongqiang Ma. 2024 · 2024
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Cultural Value Differences of LLMs: Prompt, Language, and Model Size
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Cited alongside, same era.
Aaron Jaech, Adam Kalai, Adam Lerer, Adam Richardson, Ahmed El-Kishky, Aiden Low, Alec Helyar, Aleksander Madry, Alex Beutel, Alex Carney, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Julia Kharchenko, Tanya Roosta, Aman Chadha, and Chirag Shah. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
CLIcK: A benchmark dataset of cultural and linguistic intelligence in Korean
Eunsu Kim, Juyoung Suk, Philhoon Oh, Haneul Yoo, James Thorne, and Alice Oh. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Blend: A benchmark for llms on everyday knowledge in diverse cultures and languages
Junho Myung, Nayeon Lee, Yi Zhou, Jiho Jin, Rifki Putri, Dimosthenis Antypas, Hsuvas Borkakoty, Eunsu Kim, Carla Perez-Almendros, Abinew Ali Ayele, and 1 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
LLM-Human Pipeline for Cultural Context Grounding of Conversations
Rajkumar Pujari and Dan Goldwasser. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Can LLM Generate Culturally Relevant Commonsense QA Data? Case Study in Indonesian and Sundanese
Rifki Afina Putri, Faiz Ghifari Haznitrama, Dea Adhista, and Alice Oh. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Yuanyi Ren, Haoran Ye, Hanjun Fang, Xin Zhang, and Guojie Song. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Qishuai Zhong, Yike Yun, and Aixin Sun. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
How people use chatgpt
Aaron Chatterji, Tom Cunningham, David Deming, Zoë Hitzig, Christopher Ong, Carl Shan, and Kevin Wadman. 2025 · 2025
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Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning
DeepSeek-AI. 2025 · 2025
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Bowen Jiang, Zhuoqun Hao, Young-Min Cho, Bryan Li, Yuan Yuan, Sihao Chen, Lyle Ungar, Camillo J Taylor, and Dan Roth. 2025 · 2025
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Percul: A story-driven cultural evaluation of llms in persian
Erfan Moosavi Monazzah, Vahid Rahimzadeh, Yadollah Yaghoobzadeh, Azadeh Shakery, and Mohammad Taher Pilehvar. 2025 · 2025
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Synthetic data generation for culturally nuanced commonsense reasoning in low-resource languages
Salsabila Zahirah Pranida, Rifo Ahmad Genadi, and Fajri Koto. 2025 · 2025
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Meta-cultural competence: Climbing the right hill of cultural awareness
Sougata Saha, Saurabh Kumar Pandey, and Monojit Choudhury. 2025a · 2025
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Kristeva: Close reading as a novel task for benchmarking interpretive reasoning
Peiqi Sui, Juan Diego Rodriguez, Philippe Laban, Dean Murphy, Joseph P. Dexter, Richard Jean So, Samuel Baker, and Pramit Chaudhuri. 2025 · 2025
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Coser: Coordinating llm-based persona simulation of established roles
Xintao Wang, Heng Wang, Yifei Zhang, Xinfeng Yuan, Rui Xu, Jen-tse Huang, Siyu Yuan, Haoran Guo, Jiangjie Chen, Shuchang Zhou, and 1 others. 2025 · 2025
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Socialcc: Interactive evaluation for cultural competence in language agents
Jincenzi Wu, Jianxun Lian, Dingdong Wang, and Helen Meng. 2025 · 2025
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Seedbench: A multi-task benchmark for evaluating large language models in seed science
Jie Ying, Zihong Chen, Zhefan Wang, Wanli Jiang, Chenyang Wang, Zhonghang Yuan, Haoyang Su, Huanjun Kong, Fan Yang, and Nanqing Dong. 2025 · 2025
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