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Reasoning has long been viewed as an emergent property of large language models (LLMs).
Language models are few-shot learners
Tom Brown, Benjamin Mann, Nick Ryder, Melanie Subbiah, Jared D Kaplan, Prafulla Dhariwal, Arvind Neelakantan, Pranav Shyam, Girish Sastry, Amanda Askell, Sandhini Agarwal, Ariel Herbert-Voss, Gretchen Krueger, Tom Henighan, Rewon Child, Aditya Ramesh, Daniel Ziegler, Jeffrey Wu, Clemens Winter, and 12 others. 2020 · 1901
Earlier work this paper cites.
Think you have solved question answering? try arc, the ai2 reasoning challenge
Peter Clark, Isaac Cowhey, Oren Etzioni, Tushar Khot, Ashish Sabharwal, Carissa Schoenick, and Oyvind Tafjord. 2018 · 2018
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Can a suit of armor conduct electricity? a new dataset for open book question answering
Todor Mihaylov, Peter Clark, Tushar Khot, and Ashish Sabharwal. 2018a · 2018
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MathQA: Towards interpretable math word problem solving with operation-based formalisms
Aida Amini, Saadia Gabriel, Shanchuan Lin, Rik Koncel-Kedziorski, Yejin Choi, and Hannaneh Hajishirzi. 2019 · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
Towards understanding knowledge distillation
Mary Phuong and Christoph Lampert. 2019 · 2019
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CommonsenseQA: A question answering challenge targeting commonsense knowledge
Alon Talmor, Jonathan Herzig, Nicholas Lourie, and Jonathan Berant. 2019 · 2019
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Hellaswag: Can a machine really finish your sentence?
Rowan Zellers, Ari Holtzman, Yonatan Bisk, Ali Farhadi, and Yejin Choi. 2019 · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
Training verifiers to solve math word problems
Karl Cobbe, Vineet Kosaraju, Mohammad Bavarian, Mark Chen, Heewoo Jun, Lukasz Kaiser, Matthias Plappert, Jerry Tworek, Jacob Hilton, Reiichiro Nakano, Christopher Hesse, and John Schulman. 2021 · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Knowledge distillation: A survey
Jianping Gou, Baosheng Yu, Stephen J Maybank, and Dacheng Tao. 2021 · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Measuring mathematical problem solving with the math dataset
Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Saurav Kadavath, Akul Arora, Steven Basart, Eric Tang, Dawn Song, and Jacob Steinhardt. 2021 · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
Can large language models be an alternative to human evaluations?
Cheng-Han Chiang and Hung-yi Lee. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Palm: scaling language modeling with pathways
Aakanksha Chowdhery, Sharan Narang, Jacob Devlin, Maarten Bosma, Gaurav Mishra, Adam Roberts, Paul Barham, Hyung Won Chung, Charles Sutton, Sebastian Gehrmann, Parker Schuh, Kensen Shi, Sashank Tsvyashchenko, Joshua Maynez, Abhishek Rao, Parker Barnes, Yi Tay, Noam Shazeer, Vinodkumar Prabhakaran, and 48 others. 2023 · 2023
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Specializing smaller language models towards multi-step reasoning
Yao Fu, Hao Peng, Litu Ou, Ashish Sabharwal, and Tushar Khot. 2023 · 2023
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Efficient memory management for large language model serving with pagedattention
Woosuk Kwon, Zhuohan Li, Siyuan Zhuang, Ying Sheng, Lianmin Zheng, Cody Hao Yu, Joseph E. Gonzalez, Hao Zhang, and Ion Stoica. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Teaching small language models to reason
Lucie Charlotte Magister, Jonathan Mallinson, Jakub Adamek, Eric Malmi, and Aliaksei Severyn. 2023 · 2023
Earlier work this paper cites.
Orca 2: Teaching small language models how to reason
Arindam Mitra, Luciano Del Corro, Shweti Mahajan, Andres Codas, Clarisse Simoes, Sahaj Agarwal, Xuxi Chen, Anastasia Razdaibiedina, Erik Jones, Kriti Aggarwal, Hamid Palangi, Guoqing Zheng, Corby Rosset, Hamed Khanpour, and Ahmed Awadallah. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Evaluation metrics in the era of GPT-4: Reliably evaluating large language models on sequence to sequence tasks
Andrea Sottana, Bin Liang, Kai Zou, and Zheng Yuan. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Is ChatGPT a good NLG evaluator? a preliminary study
Jiaan Wang, Yunlong Liang, Fandong Meng, Zengkui Sun, Haoxiang Shi, Zhixu Li, Jinan Xu, Jianfeng Qu, and Jie Zhou. 2023 · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Phi-3 technical report: A highly capable language model locally on your phone
Marah Abdin, Jyoti Aneja, Hany Awadalla, Ahmed Awadallah, Ammar Ahmad Awan, Nguyen Bach, Amit Bahree, Arash Bakhtiari, Jianmin Bao, Harkirat Behl, Alon Benhaim, Misha Bilenko, Johan Bjorck, Sébastien Bubeck, Martin Cai, Qin Cai, Vishrav Chaudhary, Dong Chen, Dongdong Chen, and 110 others. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
OpenAI, Josh Achiam, Steven Adler, Sandhini Agarwal, Lama Ahmad, Ilge Akkaya, Florencia Leoni Aleman, Diogo Almeida, Janko Altenschmidt, Sam Altman, Shyamal Anadkat, Red Avila, Igor Babuschkin, Suchir Balaji, Valerie Balcom, Paul Baltescu, Haiming Bao, Mohammad Bavarian, Jeff Belgum, and 262 others. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Reasoning with large language models, a survey
Aske Plaat, Annie Wong, Suzan Verberne, Joost Broekens, Niki van Stein, and Thomas Back. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Aligning large and small language models via chain-of-thought reasoning
Leonardo Ranaldi and Andre Freitas. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Gemini: A family of highly capable multimodal models
Gemini Team, Rohan Anil, Sebastian Borgeaud, Jean-Baptiste Alayrac, Jiahui Yu, Radu Soricut, Johan Schalkwyk, Andrew M. Dai, Anja Hauth, Katie Millican, David Silver, Melvin Johnson, Ioannis Antonoglou, Julian Schrittwieser, Amelia Glaese, Jilin Chen, Emily Pitler, Timothy Lillicrap, Angeliki Lazaridou, and 1331 others. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
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Graph of thoughts: Solving elaborate problems with large language models
Maciej Besta, Nils Blach, Ales Kubicek, Robert Gerstenberger, Michal Podstawski, Lukas Gianinazzi, Joanna Gajda, Tomasz Lehmann, Hubert Niewiadomski, Piotr Nyczyk, and Torsten Hoefler. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
A survey on evaluation of large language models
Yupeng Chang, Xu Wang, Jindong Wang, Yuan Wu, Linyi Yang, Kaijie Zhu, Hao Chen, Xiaoyuan Yi, Cunxiang Wang, Yidong Wang, Wei Ye, Yue Zhang, Yi Chang, Philip S. Yu, Qiang Yang, and Xing Xie. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Llama guard 3-1b-int4: Compact and efficient safeguard for human-ai conversations
Igor Fedorov, Kate Plawiak, Lemeng Wu, Tarek Elgamal, Naveen Suda, Eric Smith, Hongyuan Zhan, Jianfeng Chi, Yuriy Hulovatyy, Kimish Patel, Zechun Liu, Changsheng Zhao, Yangyang Shi, Tijmen Blankevoort, Mahesh Pasupuleti, Bilge Soran, Zacharie Delpierre Coudert, Rachad Alao, Raghuraman Krishnamoorthi, and Vikas Chandra. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Teaching small language models reasoning through counterfactual distillation
Tao Feng, Yicheng Li, Li Chenglin, Hao Chen, Fei Yu, and Yin Zhang. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Large language models cannot self-correct reasoning yet
Jie Huang, Xinyun Chen, Swaroop Mishra, Huaixiu Steven Zheng, Adams Wei Yu, Xinying Song, and Denny Zhou. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Small language models are equation reasoners
Bumjun Kim, Kunha Lee, Juyeon Kim, and Sangam Lee. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
GSM-plus: A comprehensive benchmark for evaluating the robustness of LLMs as mathematical problem solvers
Qintong Li, Leyang Cui, Xueliang Zhao, Lingpeng Kong, and Wei Bi. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Small language models: Survey, measurements, and insights
Zhenyan Lu, Xiang Li, Dongqi Cai, Rongjie Yi, Fangming Liu, Xiwen Zhang, Nicholas D Lane, and Mengwei Xu. 2024 · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Judging the judges: Evaluating alignment and vulnerabilities in llms-as-judges
Aman Singh Thakur, Kartik Choudhary, Venkat Srinik Ramayapally, Sankaran Vaidyanathan, and Dieuwke Hupkes. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Fali Wang, Zhiwei Zhang, Xianren Zhang, Zongyu Wu, Tzuhao Mo, Qiuhao Lu, Wanjing Wang, Rui Li, Junjie Xu, Xianfeng Tang, Qi He, Yao Ma, Ming Huang, and Suhang Wang. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
An Yang, Baosong Yang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chang Zhou, Chengpeng Li, Chengyuan Li, Dayiheng Liu, Fei Huang, Guanting Dong, Haoran Wei, Huan Lin, Jialong Tang, Jialin Wang, Jian Yang, Jianhong Tu, Jianwei Zhang, Jianxin Ma, and 43 others. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Small language models need strong verifiers to self-correct reasoning
Yunxiang Zhang, Muhammad Khalifa, Lajanugen Logeswaran, Jaekyeom Kim, Moontae Lee, Honglak Lee, and Lu Wang. 2024 · 2024
Later among the works it cites.
Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning
DeepSeek-AI, Daya Guo, Dejian Yang, Haowei Zhang, Junxiao Song, Ruoyu Zhang, Runxin Xu, Qihao Zhu, Shirong Ma, Peiyi Wang, Xiao Bi, Xiaokang Zhang, Xingkai Yu, Yu Wu, Z. F. Wu, Zhibin Gou, Zhihong Shao, Zhuoshu Li, Ziyi Gao, and 181 others. 2025 · 2025
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Hymba: A hybrid-head architecture for small language models
Xin Dong, Yonggan Fu, Shizhe Diao, Wonmin Byeon, ZIJIA CHEN, Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar, Shih-Yang Liu, Matthijs Van keirsbilck, Min-Hung Chen, Yoshi Suhara, Yingyan Celine Lin, Jan Kautz, and Pavlo Molchanov. 2025 · 2025
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Jiawei Gu, Xuhui Jiang, Zhichao Shi, Hexiang Tan, Xuehao Zhai, Chengjin Xu, Wei Li, Yinghan Shen, Shengjie Ma, Honghao Liu, Yuanzhuo Wang, and Jian Guo. 2025 · 2025
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rstar-math: Small llms can master math reasoning with self-evolved deep thinking
Xinyu Guan, Li Lyna Zhang, Yifei Liu, Ning Shang, Youran Sun, Yi Zhu, Fan Yang, and Mao Yang. 2025 · 2025
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Qwen, :, An Yang, Baosong Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chengyuan Li, Dayiheng Liu, Fei Huang, Haoran Wei, Huan Lin, Jian Yang, Jianhong Tu, Jianwei Zhang, Jianxin Yang, Jiaxi Yang, Jingren Zhou, and 25 others. 2025 · 2025
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Small language models (slms) can still pack a punch: A survey
Shreyas Subramanian, Vikram Elango, and Mecit Gungor. 2025 · 2025
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