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Computing power, or "compute," is crucial for the development and deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities.
“The Role of Cooperation in Responsible AI Development”, 2019
Amanda Askell, Miles Brundage and Gillian Hadfield · 1907
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“The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure”
Paul. Samuelson · 1954
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“The Missile Gap Controversy”
Roy. Licklider · 1970
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“An Introduction to Antitrust Economics”
Ernest Gellhorn · 1975
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“White House Statement on the Soviet-United States Joint Verification Experiment for Nuclear Testing”
US Government · 1988
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“Comparison of Seismic and Hydrodynamic Yield Determinations for the Soviet Joint Verification Experiment of 1988”
Lynn. Sykes and Göran Ekström · 1989
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“Censorship in the Soviet Bloc”
Amei Wallach · 1991
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“Economic Containment: Cocom and the Politics of East-West Trade”
Michael Mastanduno · 1992
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“Why the Legal System Is Less Efficient than the Income Tax in Redistributing Income”
Louis Kaplow and Steven Shavell · 1994
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“The Economics of Information: An Exposition”
Kenneth. Arrow · 1996
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“Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits”
Gordon Moore · 1998
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“The Politics of Verification”
Nancy. Gallagher · 1999
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“Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed”
James Scott · 1999
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“Activism by the AI Community: Analysing Recent Achievements and Future Prospects”, 2020
Haydn Belfield · 2001
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“Scaling Laws for Neural Language Models”, 2020
Jared Kaplan et al · 2001
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“The Offense-Defense Balance of Scientific Knowledge: Does Publishing AI Research Reduce Misuse?”, 2020
Toby Shevlane and Allan Dafoe · 2001
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“Toward Trustworthy AI Development: Mechanisms for Supporting Verifiable Claims”
Miles Brundage et al · 2004
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“Measuring the Algorithmic Efficiency of Neural Networks”
Danny Hernandez and Tom. Brown · 2005
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“Red-Handed”
Mitchell. Reiss and Robert Galluci · 2005
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“The Epistemology of Democracy”
Elizabeth Anderson · 2006
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“Centralization of Bargaining and Wage Inequality: A Correction of Wallerstein”
Miriam. Golden and John. Londregan · 2006
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“The Open Source Definition”
OSI · 2006
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“Illicit Activity and Proliferation: North Korean Smuggling Networks”
Sheena Chestnut · 2007
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“Cash and Food Transfers: A Primer”, 2007
Ugo Gentilini · 2007
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“The Totalitarian Threat”
Bryan Caplan · 2008
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“Perfect Enforcement Of Law: When To Limit And When To Use Technology”
Christina Mulligan · 2008
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“Verification in an Age of Insecurity: The Future of Arms Control Compliance”
Philip O’Neill · 2009
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“Forecasting Timelines of Quantum Computing”, 2020
Jaime Sevilla and C. Riedel · 2009
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“The De-Democratization of AI: Deep Learning and the Compute Divide in Artificial Intelligence Research”, 2020
Nur Ahmed and Muntasir Wahed · 2010
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“Who Controls the off Switch?”
Ross Anderson and Shailendra Fuloria · 2010
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“Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty”
Daron Acemoglu and James. Robinson · 2012
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“Beyond Privacy Trade-Offs with Structured Transparency”, 2020
Andrew Trask et al · 2012
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“Facilitators of National Innovation Policy in a SME-dominated Country: A Case Study of Taiwan”
Chia-Yi Chen, Yu-Ling Lin and Po-Young Chu · 2013
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“Tax, Command – or Nudge?: Evaluating the New Regulation”, 2013
Brian. Galle · 2013
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“The State of State Capacity : A Review of Concepts, Evidence and Measures”
Cingolani Luciana · 2013
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“Physically Unclonable Functions: Properties”
Roel Maes · 2013
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“The Nonproliferation Emperor Has No Clothes: The Gas Centrifuge, Supply-Side Controls, and the Future of Nuclear Proliferation”
R. Kemp · 2014
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“Barriers to Bioweapons: The Challenges of Expertise and Organization for Weapons Development”
Sonia Ouagrham-Gormley · 2014
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“Permissionless Innovation: The Continuing Case for Comprehensive Technological Freedom”
Adam Thierer · 2014
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“State Capacity and Economic Development: A Network Approach”
Daron Acemoglu, Camilo García-Jimeno and James. Robinson · 2015
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“The Unilateralist’s Curse and the Case for a Principle of Conformity”
Nick Bostrom, Thomas Douglas and Anders Sandberg · 2015
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“Data Nationalism”
Anupam Chander and Uyên. Lê · 2015
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“Secure Multiparty Computation”
Ronald Cramer, Ivan Damgård and Jesper Nielsen · 2015
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“An Introduction to Autonomy in Weapon Systems”
Michael Horowitz and Paul Scharre · 2015
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“Information Protection & Information Barriers”
NTI · 2015
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“Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action”
Elinor Ostrom · 2015
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“Trusted Execution Environment: What It Is, and What It Is Not”
Mohamed Sabt, Mohammed Achemlal and Abdelmadjid Bouabdallah · 2015
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“Racing to the Precipice: A Model of Artificial Intelligence Development”
Stuart Armstrong, Nick Bostrom and Carl Shulman · 2016
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“Building the Public Goods of the Twenty-First Century”
Nicholas Gruen · 2017
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“The New Governors: The People, Rules, and Processes Governing Online Speech”
Kate Klonick · 2017
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“ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks”
Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever and Geoffrey. Hinton · 2017
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“End-Use Monitoring Overview”, 2017
Kevin Kurland · 2017
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Ashish Vaswani et al · 2017
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“AI and Compute”
Dario Amodei and Danny Hernandez · 2018
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“The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence: Forecasting, Prevention, and Mitigation”, 2018
Miles Brundage et al · 2018
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“An AI Race for Strategic Advantage: Rhetoric and Risks”
Stephen Cave and Seán. ÓhÉigeartaigh · 2018
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“AI Governance: A Research Agenda”, 2018, pp. 53
Allan Dafoe · 2018
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“AI Nationalism”
Ian Hogarth · 2018
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“Computational Power and the Social Impact of Artificial Intelligence”, 2018
Tim Hwang · 2018
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“One of the Fathers of AI Is Worried about Its Future”
Will Knight · 2018
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“Overall Roadmap Technology Characteristics 2003”, 2003
Semiconductor Industry Association · 2018
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“BERT: Pre-Training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding”, 2019
Jacob Devlin, Ming-Wei Chang, Kenton Lee and Kristina Toutanova · 2019
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Oxford, United Kingdom Cambridge, MA, United States: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2019
“Nuclear Safeguards, Security, and Nonproliferation: Achieving Security with Technology and Policy” · 2019
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“How Does the Offense-Defense Balance Scale?”
Ben Garfinkel and Allan Dafoe · 2019
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“State Capacity and Economic Development: Causal Mechanism or Correlative Filter?”
Vincent. Geloso and Alexander. Salter · 2019
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“Is Artificial Intelligence the Frontier Solution to Global South’s Wicked Development Challenges?”
Ehsan Gul · 2019
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“AI Safety, Security, and Stability among Great Powers: Options, Challenges, and Lessons Learned for Pragmatic Engagement”, 2019
Andrew Imbrie and Elsa Kania · 2019
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“Advice to UN High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation”
Luke Kemp et al · 2019
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“Kenya Data Protection Act”, 2019
Kenya · 2019
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“A Cryptographic Escrow for Treaty Declarations and Step-by-Step Verification”
Sébastien Philippe, Alexander Glaser and Edward. Felten · 2019
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“Language Models Are Unsupervised Multitask Learners”, 2019
Alec Radford et al · 2019
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“Human Compatible”
Stuart Russell · 2019
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“The Future of Computing beyond Moore’s Law”
John Shalf · 2019
Earlier work this paper cites.
“The Bitter Lesson”, 2019
Rich Sutton · 2019
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“Algorithmic Colonization of Africa”
Abeba Birhane · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
“The AI Triad and What It Means for National Security Strategy”
Ben Buchanan · 2020
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“Why Arms Control Is so Rare”
Andrew. Coe and Jane Vaynman · 2020
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“Draft Report on AI Timelines”
Ajeya Cotra · 2020
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“Towards the Systematic Reporting of the Energy and Carbon Footprints of Machine Learning”
Peter Henderson et al · 2020
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“AI Chips: What They Are and Why They Matter”
Saif Khan and Mann · 2020
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“Maintaining China’s Dependence on Democracies for Advanced Computer Chips”
Saif Khan and Carrick Flynn · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Data Labeling for the Artificial Intelligence Industry: Economic Impacts in Developing Countries”
Nir Kshetri · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
“A Better Way to Measure Progress in Semiconductors”
Samuel. Moore · 2020
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“Overcoming Barriers to Cross-Cultural Cooperation in AI Ethics and Governance”
Seán. ÓhÉigeartaigh et al · 2020
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“Comment on FR Doc # 2020-22443”, 2020
US BIS · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
“The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals”
Ricardo Vinuesa et al · 2020
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“The Limits of Global Inclusion in AI Development”, 2021
Alan Chan, Chinasa. Okolo, Zachary Terner and Angelina Wang · 2021
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“National Power after AI”, 2021
Matthew Daniels and Ben Chang · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Manipulating Viruses and Risking Pandemics Is Too Dangerous. It’s Time to Stop.”
Kevin Esvelt · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“AI Policy Levers: A Review of the U.S. Government’s Tools to Shape AI Research, Development, and Deployment”, 2021
Sophie-Charlotte Fischer et al · 2021
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“TSMC: How a Taiwanese Chipmaker Became a Linchpin of the Global Economy”
Kathrin Hille · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“AI and International Stability: Risks and Confidence-Building Measures”
Michael Horowitz and Paul Scharre · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“AI & Antitrust: Reconciling Tensions Between Competition Law and Cooperative AI Development”
Shin-Shin Hua and Haydn Belfield · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Proof-of-Learning: Definitions and Practice”, 2021
Hengrui Jia et al · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Scaling Scaling Laws with Board Games”, 2021
Andy. Jones · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Highly Accurate Protein Structure Prediction with AlphaFold”
John Jumper et al · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Mission Economy”, 2021
Mariana Mazzucato · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Privacy-Preserving Computation for Nuclear Safeguards”, 2021
Mitchell Negus · 2021
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“Google Cloud Research Credits Expand to Nonprofit Researchers”
Eleazar Ortiz · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Carbon Emissions and Large Neural Network Training”, 2021
David Patterson et al · 2021
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“Digitizing Export Controls: A Trade Compliance Technology Stack?”
William Reinsch and Emily Benson · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Debunking the AI Arms Race Theory”
Paul Scharre · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Constructing a Visual Dataset to Study the Effects of Spatial Apartheid in South Africa”
Raesetje Sefala et al · 2021
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“Understanding the Capabilities, Limitations, and Societal Impact of Large Language Models”, 2021
Alex Tamkin, Miles Brundage, Jack Clark and Deep Ganguli · 2021
Earlier work this paper cites.
“‘Ghost Guns’: Firearm Kits Bought Online Fuel Epidemic of Violence”
Glenn Thrush · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“Global Britain in a Competitive Age”, 2021
UK Cabinet Office · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“NVIDIA - Arm: A Report to the Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport on the Anticipated Acquisiton by NVIDIA Corporation of Arm Limited”, 2021
UK CMA · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“FTC Sues to Block $40 Billion Semiconductor Chip Merger”
US FTC · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“No Permits, No Fabs”, 2021
John VerWey · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence: Evidence from a Survey of Machine Learning Researchers”
Baobao Zhang et al · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
“What a Compute-Centric Framework Says about AI Takeoff Speeds”
Tom Davidson · 2023
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“Oversight for Frontier AI through a Know-Your-Customer Scheme for Compute Providers”, 2023
Janet Egan and Lennart Heim · 2023
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“Uncertainty, Information, and Risk in International Technology Races”
Nicholas Emery-Xu, Andrew Park and Robert Trager · 2023
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“Key Trends and Figures in Machine Learning”
Epoch · 2023
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“Preventing AI Chip Smuggling to China”
Tim Fist and Erich Grunewald · 2023
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“Chinese Firms Are Evading Chip Controls”
Tim Fist, Lennart Heim and Jordan Schneider · 2023
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“Choking off China’s Access to the Future of AI”, 2022
Gregory. Allen · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
“Improved Export Controls Enforcement Technology Needed for U.S. National Security”
Gregory. Allen, Emily Benson and William Reinsch · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
“Deploying Transformers on the Apple Neural Engine”
Apple · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
“Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI Feedback”
Yuntao Bai et al · 2022
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“Compute and Antitrust: Regulatory Implications of the AI Hardware Supply Chain, from Chip Design to Cloud APIs”
Haydn Belfield and Shin-Shin Hua · 2022
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“Why Policy Makers Should Beware Claims of New ’Arms Races”’
Haydn Belfield and Christian Ruhl · 2022
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“Pause Giant AI Experiments: An Open Letter”
Future of Life Institute · 2023
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“BadLlama: Cheaply Removing Safety Fine-Tuning from Llama 2-Chat 13B”, 2023
Pranav Gade, Simon Lermen, Charlie Rogers-Smith and Jeffrey Ladish · 2023
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“Why Does In-Kind Assistance Persist When Evidence Favors Cash Transfers?”
Ugo Gentilini · 2023
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“Generative Language Models and Automated Influence Operations: Emerging Threats and Potential Mitigations”, 2023
Josh. Goldstein et al · 2023
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“Nvidia CEO: U.S. Chipmakers at Least a Decade Away from China Supply Chain Independence”
Rohan Goswami · 2023
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“Introduction to AI Chip Making in China”, 2023
Erich Grunewald · 2023
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“AI Chip Smuggling into China”, 2023
Erich Grunewald and Michael Aird · 2023
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“Dutch Cozy up to US with Controls on Exporting Microchip Kit to China”
Pieter Haeck and Barbara Moens · 2023
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“We Need a Manhattan Project for AI Safety”
Samuel Hammond · 2023
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“A Proposal for International Coordination on AI”
Jason Hausenloy, Andrea Miotti and Claire Dennis · 2023
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“China Just Stopped Exporting Two Minerals the World’s Chipmakers Need”
Laura He · 2023
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“The Case for Pre-Emptive Authorizations for AI Training”, 2023
Lennart Heim · 2023
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“This Can’t Go on(?) - AI Training Compute Costs”, 2023
Lennart Heim · 2023
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“Accessing Controlled AI Chips via Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS): Implications for Export Controls”, 2023
Lennart Heim and Janet Egan · 2023
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“International Institutions for Advanced AI”, 2023
Lewis Ho et al · 2023
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“Trends in Machine Learning Hardware”, 2023
Marius Hobbhahn, Lennart Heim and Gökçe Aydos · 2023
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“We Must Slow down the Race to God-like AI”
Ian Hogarth · 2023
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“AI Safety and the Age of Dislightenment”
Jeremy Howard · 2023
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“Hugging Face and AWS Partner to Make AI More Accessible”
HuggingFace · 2023
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“Instructions for Form 8300”
IRS · 2023
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“Industrial Policy for Advanced AI: Compute Pricing and the Safety Tax”, 2023
Mckay Jensen, Nicholas Emery-Xu and Robert Trager · 2023
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“The Path to AI Arms Control”
Henry. Kissinger and Graham Allison · 2023
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“OpenAI’s CEO Says the Age of Giant AI Models Is Already over”
Will Knight · 2023
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“Algorithmic Black Swans”, 2023
Noam Kolt · 2023
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“Xavier Niel Invests €200M to Bolster AI Sovereignty and Retain French Talent but the Country Is Lagging Far behind the US”
Cate Lawrance · 2023
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“LoRA Fine-Tuning Efficiently Undoes Safety Training in Llama 2-Chat 70B”, 2023
Simon Lermen, Charlie Rogers-Smith and Jeffrey Ladish · 2023
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“How Huawei Surprised the US with a Cutting-Edge Chip Made in China”
Qianer Liu · 2023
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“Scaling AI - Cost and Performance of AI at the Leading Edge”, 2023
Andrew Lohn · 2023
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“Advanced AI Governance: A Literature Review of Problems, Options, and Proposals”, 2023
Matthijs. Maas · 2023
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“Concepts in Advanced AI Governance: A Literature Review of Key Terms and Definitions”, 2023
Matthijs. Maas · 2023
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“Here’s a Simple Way to Regulate Powerful AI Models”
Jason Matheny · 2023
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“Efficient Deep Learning: A Survey on Making Deep Learning Models Smaller, Faster, and Better”
Gaurav Menghani · 2023
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“Techniques to Make Large Language Models Smaller: An Explainer”
Kyle Miller and Andrew Lohn · 2023
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“H100 GPU Instance Pricing on AWS: Grin and Bear It”
Timothy Morgan · 2023
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“The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: A Red-Team Approach”, 2023
Christopher. Mouton, Caleb Lucas and Ella Guest · 2023
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“Artificial Intelligence Will Entrench Global Inequality”
Robert Muggah and Ilona Szabo · 2023
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“"The Main Resource Is the Human"”, 2023
Micah Musser et al · 2023
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“National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force Releases Final Report”
NAIRR and The White House · 2023
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“US Curbs AI Chip Exports from Nvidia and AMD to Some Middle East Countries”
Stephen Nellis and Max. Cherney · 2023
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“With No Big Customers Named, AMD’s AI Chip Challenge to Nvidia Remains Uphill Fight”
Stephen Nellis, Chavi Mehta and Chavi Mehta · 2023
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“Securing Artificial Intelligence Model Weights: Interim Report”, 2023
Sella Nevo et al · 2023
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“The Alignment Problem from a Deep Learning Perspective”, 2023
Richard Ngo, Lawrence Chan and Sören Mindermann · 2023
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“AWS and NVIDIA Collaborate on Next-Generation Infrastructure for Training Large Machine Learning Models and Building Generative AI Applications”
NVIDIA · 2023
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“A Blueprint for Building National Compute Capacity for Artificial Intelligence”, 2023
OECD · 2023
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“Cloud Services Market Study”, 2023
OFCOM · 2023
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“Responsible AI in Africa – Challenges and Opportunities”, 2023, pp. 35–64
Chinasa Okolo, Kehinde Aruleba and George Obaido · 2023
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“AI in the Global South: Opportunities and Challenges towards More Inclusive Governance”
Chinasa. Okolo · 2023
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“Chemical Weapons Convention - Article II”, 2023
OPCW · 2023
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“Preparedness”
OpenAI · 2023
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“GPT-4 Technical Report”, 2023
OpenAI et al · 2023
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“Tech War: Chinese Chip Firms Stockpile Equipment Ahead of US-japan-netherlands Agreement on Tightening Export Controls”
Che Pan · 2023
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“The Gaps in the New China Lithography Restrictions – ASML, SMEE, Nikon, Canon, EUV, DUV, ArFi, ArF Dry, KrF, and Photoresist”
Dylan Patel · 2023
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“China AI & Semiconductors Rise: US Sanctions Have Failed”
Dylan Patel, Afzal Ahmad and Myron Xie · 2023
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“The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot”
Sida Peng, Eirini Kalliamvakou, Peter Cihon and Mert Demirer · 2023
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“Compute at Scale: A Broad Investigation into the Data Center Industry”, 2023
Konstantin Pilz and Lennart Heim · 2023
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“Increased Compute Efficiency and the Diffusion of AI Capabilities”, 2023
Konstantin Pilz, Lennart Heim and Nicholas Brown · 2023
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“Behind the Scenes: How Not to Negotiate an Enhanced NPT Review Process”
William. Potter · 2023
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“Infographic: Amazon Maintains Lead in the Cloud Market”
Felix Richter · 2023
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“Nuclear Energy”
Hannah Ritchie and Pablo Rosado · 2023
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“Artificial Intelligence and Biological Misuse: Differentiating Risks of Language Models and Biological Design Tools”, 2023
Jonas. Sandbrink · 2023
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“Are Emergent Abilities of Large Language Models a Mirage?”, 2023
Rylan Schaeffer, Brando Miranda and Sanmi Koyejo · 2023
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“Decoupling Wastes U.S. Leverage on China”
Paul Scharre · 2023
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“Contextualizing the National Security Concerns over China’s Domestically Produced High-End Chip”, 2023
Matthew Schleich and William Reinsch · 2023
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“Three Lines of Defense against Risks from AI”
Jonas Schuett · 2023
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“Open-Sourcing Highly Capable Foundation Models: An Evaluation of Risks, Benefits, and Alternative Methods for Pursuing Open-Source Objectives”
Elizabeth Seger et al · 2023
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“Democratising AI: Multiple Meanings, Goals, and Methods”, 2023
Elizabeth Seger et al · 2023
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Yonadav Shavit · 2023
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“Model Evaluation for Extreme Risks”
Toby Shevlane et al · 2023
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“Confidence-Building Measures for Artificial Intelligence: Workshop Proceedings”, 2023
Sarah Shoker et al · 2023
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“Developing and Deploying AI Responsibly: Elements of an Effective Legislative Framework to Regulate AI”
Brad Smith · 2023
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“Hardware Security Module”
Maria Sommerhalder · 2023
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“Why the IAEA Model May Not Be Best for Regulating Artificial Intelligence”
Ian. Stewart · 2023
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“Mapping the Semiconductor Supply Chain: The Critical Role of the Indo-Pacific Region”
Akhil Thadani and Gregory Allen · 2023
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“Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence”
The White House · 2023
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“Existential Risks and Global Governance Issues around AI and Robotics”
Adam Thierer · 2023
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“AI Governance for Africa Toolkit - Parts 1 and 2”, 2023
Thomson Reuters Foundation · 2023
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“ASML Says Decoupling Chip Supply Chain Is Practically Impossible”
Cheng Ting-Fang · 2023
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“Llama 2: Open Foundation and Fine-Tuned Chat Models”, 2023
Hugo Touvron et al · 2023
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“U.S. Announces New Support for Ghana’s Civil Nuclear Energy Program under the FIRST Capacity Building Program”
U. S. Embassy in Ghana · 2023
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“AI Foundation Models: Initial Report”, 2023
UK CMA · 2023
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“Frontier AI: Capabilities and Risks – Discussion Paper”, 2023
UK DSIT · 2023
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“Bristol Set to Host UK’s Most Powerful Supercomputer to Turbocharge AI Innovation”
UK Government · 2023
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“Export Administration Regulations (ECCN 9A515, 4A001)”, 2023
US BIS · 2023
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“Strengthening and Democratizing the U.S. Artificial Intelligence Innovation Ecosystem: An Implementation Plan for a National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource”, 2023
US NAIRR · 2023
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“Scaling Laws Literature Review”, 2023
Pablo Villalobos · 2023
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“Trading off Compute in Training and Inference”, 2023
Pablo Villalobos and David Atkinson · 2023
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“Qualcomm Demos Fastest Local AI Image Generation with Stable Diffusion on Mobile”
James Vincent · 2023
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“‘Eu’s AI Act Could Kill Our Company,’ Says Mistral’s Cédric O”
Zosia Wanat · 2023
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“Common Arguments Regarding Emergent Abilities — Jason Wei”, 2023
Jason Wei · 2023
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“For Export Controls on AI, Don’t Forget the "Catch-all" Basics”
Emily. Weinstein and Kevin Wolf · 2023
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“Response to the UK’s Future of Compute Review”, 2023
Jess Whittlestone et al · 2023
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“The ‘AI Divide’ between the Global North and Global South”
Danni Yu, Hannah Rosenfeld and Abhishek Gupta · 2023
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