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The growing carbon footprint of artificial intelligence (AI) has been undergoing public scrutiny.
A review of operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies
Jordan Macknick, Robin Newmark, Garvin Heath, and KC Hallett · 2011
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It’s not easy being green
Peter Xiang Gao, Andrew R. Curtis, Bernard Wong, and Srinivasan Keshav · 2012
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What’s the difference between water use and water consumption?
Paul Reig · 2013
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The water withdrawal footprint of energy supply to cities
Elliot Cohen and Anu Ramaswami · 2014
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Exploiting temporal diversity of water efficiency to make data center less “thirsty”
Kishwar Ahmed, Mohammad A. Islam, Shaolei Ren, and Gang Quan · 2014
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Exploiting spatio-temporal diversity for water saving in geo-distributed data centers
Mohammad A. Islam, Kishwar Ahmed, Hong Xu, Nguyen H. Tran, Gang Quan, and Shaolei Ren · 2018
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Energy and policy considerations for deep learning in NLP
Emma Strubell, Ananya Ganesh, and Andrew McCallum · 2019
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Quantifying spatiotemporal impacts of the interaction of water scarcity and water use by the global semiconductor manufacturing industry
Kali Frost and Inez Hua · 2019
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Green AI
Roy Schwartz, Jesse Dodge, Noah A. Smith, and Oren Etzioni · 2020
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Guidance for calculating water use embedded in purchased electricity
Paul Reig, Tianyi Luo, Eric Christensen, and Julie Sinistore · 2020
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Language models are few-shot learners
Tom Brown, Benjamin Mann, Nick Ryder, Melanie Subbiah, Jared D Kaplan, Prafulla Dhariwal, Arvind Neelakantan, Pranav Shyam, Girish Sastry, Amanda Askell, Sandhini Agarwal, Ariel Herbert-Voss, Gretchen Krueger, Tom Henighan, Rewon Child, Aditya Ramesh, Daniel Ziegler, Jeffrey Wu, Clemens Winter, Chris Hesse, Mark Chen, Eric Sigler, Mateusz Litwin, Scott Gray, Benjamin Chess, Jack Clark, Christopher Berner, Sam McCandlish, Alec Radford, Ilya Sutskever, and Dario Amodei · 2020
Earlier work this paper cites.
The environmental footprint of data centers in the United States
Md Abu Bakar Siddik, Arman Shehabi, and Landon Marston · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Carbon emissions and large neural network training, 2021
David Patterson, Joseph Gonzalez, Quoc Le, Chen Liang, Lluis-Miquel Munguia, Daniel Rothchild, David So, Maud Texier, and Jeff Dean · 2021
Cited alongside, same era.
Water-energy tradeoffs in data centers: A case study in hot-arid climates
Leila Karimi, Leeann Yacuel, Joseph Degraft-Johnson, Jamie Ashby, Michael Green, Matt Renner, Aryn Bergman, Robert Norwood, and Kerri L. Hickenbottom · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
U.S. electric power sector continues water efficiency gains
U.S. Energy Information Administration · 2022
Cited alongside, same era.
ESG - water
PepsiCo · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
The growing energy footprint of artificial intelligence
Alex de Vries · 2023
Environmental sustainability report
Microsoft · 2024
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Sustainability report
Meta · 2024
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Sustainable by design: Next-generation datacenters consume zero water for cooling
Steve Solomon · 2024
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Environmental responsibility report
Apple · 2024
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Estimating the carbon footprint of BLOOM, a 176B parameter language model
Alexandra Sasha Luccioni, Sylvain Viguier, and Anne-Laure Ligozat · 2024
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A water efficiency dataset for african data centers
Noah Shumba, Opelo Tshekiso, Pengfei Li, Giulia Fanti, and Shaolei Ren · 2024
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Ecologits calculator
Adrien Banse Samuel Rincé and Valentin Defour · 2024
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Cited alongside, same era.
ISO/IEC TR 20226 sustainability: Harnessing the power of AI
ISO/IEC JTC for AI (SC42) · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Sustainability — water
Meta · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
Microsoft’s sustainability targets
Microsoft · 2023
Cited alongside, same era.
2024 United States data center energy usage report
Arman Shehabi, Sarah J. Smith, Alex Hubbard, Alex Newkirk, Nuoa Lei, Md Abu Bakar Siddik, Billie Holecek, Jonathan Koomey, Eric Masanet, and Dale Sartor · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Environmental report
Google · 2024
Cited alongside, same era.
Open data
U.S. Energy Information Administration
Cited in the paper.
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Sustainability report
Equinix · 2024
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DynamoLLM: Designing LLM inference clusters for performance and energy efficiency
Jovan Stojkovic, Chaojie Zhang, Inigo Goiri, Josep Torrellas, and Esha Choukse · 2025
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The world fact book — total water withdrawal
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency · 2028
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