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We study whether automatically-induced prompts that effectively extract information from a language model can also be used, out-of-the-box, to probe other language models for the same information.
Language models as knowledge bases?
Fabio Petroni, Tim Rocktäschel, Patrick Lewis, Anton Bakhtin, Yuxiang Wu, Alexander H Miller, and Sebastian Riedel · 1909
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The WaCky wide web: A collection of very large linguistically processed web-crawled corpora
Marco Baroni, Silvia Bernardini, Adriano Ferraresi, and Eros Zanchetta · 2009
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Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality
Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg S Corrado, and Jeff Dean · 2013
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Word embeddings as metric recovery in semantic spaces
Tatsunori B Hashimoto, David Alvarez-Melis, and Tommi S Jaakkola · 2016
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Enriching word vectors with subword information
Piotr Bojanowski, Edouard Grave, Armand Joulin, and Tomas Mikolov · 2017
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T-rex: A large scale alignment of natural language with knowledge base triples
Hady Elsahar, Pavlos Vougiouklis, Arslen Remaci, Christophe Gravier, Jonathon Hare, Frederique Laforest, and Elena Simperl · 2018
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BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding
Jacob Devlin, Ming-Wei Chang, Kenton Lee, and Kristina Toutanova · 2019
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Mike Lewis, Yinhan Liu, Naman Goyal, Marjan Ghazvininejad, Abdelrahman Mohamed, Omer Levy, Ves Stoyanov, and Luke Zettlemoyer · 2019
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Roberta: A robustly optimized bert pretraining approach
Yinhan Liu, Myle Ott, Naman Goyal, Jingfei Du, Mandar Joshi, Danqi Chen, Omer Levy, Mike Lewis, Luke Zettlemoyer, and Veselin Stoyanov · 2019
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Bert is not a knowledge base (yet): Factual knowledge vs. name-based reasoning in unsupervised qa
Nina Poerner, Ulli Waltinger, and Hinrich Schütze · 2019
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Language models are unsupervised multitask learners
Alec Radford, Jeffrey Wu, Rewon Child, David Luan, Dario Amodei, Ilya Sutskever, et al · 2019
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Distilbert, a distilled version of bert: smaller, faster, cheaper and lighter
Victor Sanh, Lysandre Debut, Julien Chaumond, and Thomas Wolf · 2019
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Universal adversarial triggers for attacking and analyzing NLP
Eric Wallace, Shi Feng, Nikhil Kandpal, Matt Gardner, and Sameer Singh · 2019
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How can we know what language models know?
Zhengbao Jiang, Frank F Xu, Jun Araki, and Graham Neubig · 2020
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Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer
Colin Raffel, Noam Shazeer, Adam Roberts, Katherine Lee, Sharan Narang, Michael Matena, Yanqi Zhou, Wei Li, Peter J Liu, et al · 2020
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The power of scale for parameter-efficient prompt tuning
Brian Lester, Rami Al-Rfou, and Noah Constant · 2021
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Pengfei Liu, Weizhe Yuan, Jinlan Fu, Zhengbao Jiang, Hiroaki Hayashi, and Graham Neubig · 2021
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It’s not just size that matters: Small language models are also few-shot learners
Timo Schick and Hinrich Schütze · 2021
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The multiberts: Bert reproductions for robustness analysis
Thibault Sellam, Steve Yadlowsky, Jason Wei, Naomi Saphra, Alexander D’Amour, Tal Linzen, Jasmijn Bastings, Iulia Turc, Jacob Eisenstein, Dipanjan Das, et al · 2021
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Masked language modeling and the distributional hypothesis: Order word matters pre-training for little
Koustuv Sinha, Robin Jia, Dieuwke Hupkes, Joelle Pineau, Adina Williams, and Douwe Kiela · 2021
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AutoPrompt: Eliciting knowledge from language models with automatically generated prompts
Taylor Shin, Yasaman Razeghi, Robert Logan IV, Eric Wallace, and Sameer Singh · 2020
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Factual probing is [mask]: Learning vs. learning to recall
Zexuan Zhong, Dan Friedman, and Danqi Chen · 2020
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On the opportunities and risks of foundation models
Rishi Bommasani, Drew Hudson, Ehsan Adeli, Russ Altman, Simran Arora, Sydney von Arx, Michael Bernstein, Jeannette Bohg, Antoine Bosselut, Emma Brunskill, Erik Brynjolfsson, Shyamal Buch, Dallas Card, Rodrigo Castellon, Niladri Chatterji, Annie Chen, Kathleen Creel, Jared Davis, Dorottya Demszky, Chris Donahue, Moussa Doumbouya, Esin Durmus, Stefano Ermon, John Etchemendy, Kawin Ethayarajh, Li Fei-Fei, Chelsea Finn, Trevor Gale, Lauren Gillespie, Karan Goel, Noah Goodman, Shelby Grossman, Neel Guha, Tatsunori Hashimoto, Peter Henderson, John Hewitt, Daniel Ho, Jenny Hong, Kyle Hsu, Jing Huang, Thomas Icard, Saahil Jain, Dan Jurafsky, Pratyusha Kalluri, Siddharth Karamcheti, Geoff Keeling, Fereshte Khani, Omar Khattab, Pang Wei Koh, Mark Krass, Ranjay Krishna, Rohith Kuditipudi, Ananya Kumar, Faisal Ladhak, Mina Lee, Tony Lee, Jure Leskovec, Isabelle Levent, Xiang Li, Xuechen Li, Tengyu Ma, Ali Malik, Christopher Manning, Suvir Mirchandani, Eric Mitchell, Zanele Munyikwa, Suraj Nair, Avanika Narayan, Deepak Narayanan, Ben Newman, Allen Nie, Juan Carlos Niebles, Hamed Nilforoshan, Julian Nyarko, Giray Ogut, Laurel Orr, Isabel Papadimitriou, Joon Sung Park, Chris Piech, Eva Portelance, Christopher Potts, Aditi Raghunathan, Rob Reich, Hongyu Ren, Frieda Rong, Yusuf Roohani, Camilo Ruiz, Jack Ryan, Christopher Ré, Dorsa Sadigh, Shiori Sagawa, Keshav Santhanam, Andy Shih, Krishnan Srinivasan, Alex Tamkin, Rohan Taori, Armin Thomas, Florian Tramér, Rose Wang, William Wang, Bohan Wu, Jiajun Wu, Yuhuai Wu, Sang Xie, Michihiro Yasunaga, Jiaxuan You, Matei Zaharia, Michael Zhang, Tianyi Zhang, Xikun Zhang, Yuhui Zhang, Lucia Zheng, Kaitlyn Zhou, and Percy Liang · 2021
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BERTese: Learning to speak to BERT
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Prompt waywardness: The curious case of discretized interpretation of continuous prompts
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Language models as knowledge bases?
Fabio Petroni, Tim Rocktäschel, Sebastian Riedel, Patrick Lewis, Anton Bakhtin, Yuxiang Wu, and Alexander Miller
Cited in the paper.
Later among the works it cites.
A review on language models as knowledge bases
Badr AlKhamissi, Millicent Li, Asli Celikyilmaz, Mona Diab, and Marjan Ghazvininejad · 2022
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Multitask prompted training enables zero-shot task generalization
Victor Sanh, Albert Webson, Colin Raffel, Stephen Bach, Lintang Sutawika, Zaid Alyafeai, Antoine Chaffin, Arnaud Stiegler, Arun Raja, Manan Dey, Saiful Bari, Canwen Xu, Urmish Thakker, Shanya Sharma Sharma, Eliza Szczechla, Taewoon Kim, Gunjan Chhablani, Nihal Nayak, Debajyoti Datta, Jonathan Chang, Mike Tian-Jian Jiang, Han Wang, Matteo Manica, Sheng Shen, Zheng Xin Yong, Harshit Pandey, Rachel Bawden, Thomas Wang, Trishala Neeraj, Jos Rozen, Abheesht Sharma, Andrea Santilli, Thibault Fevry, Jason Alan Fries, Ryan Teehan, Teven Le Scao, Stella Biderman, Leo Gao, Thomas Wolf, and Alexander Rush · 2022
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On transferability of prompt tuning for natural language processing
Yusheng Su, Xiaozhi Wang, Yujia Qin, Chi-Min Chan, Yankai Lin, Huadong Wang, Kaiyue Wen, Zhiyuan Liu, Peng Li, Juanzi Li, Lei Hou, Maosong Sun, and Jie Zhou · 2022
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Taxonomy of risks posed by language models
Laura Weidinger, Jonathan Uesato, Maribeth Rauh, Conor Griffin, Po-Sen Huang, John Mellor, Amelia Glaese, Myra Cheng, Borja Balle, Atoosa Kasirzadeh, Courtney Biles, Sasha Brown, Zac Kenton, Will Hawkins, Tom Stepleton, Abeba Birhane, Lisa Anne Hendricks, Laura Rimell, William Isaac, Julia Haas, Sean Legassick, Geoffrey Irving, and Iason Gabriel · 2022
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PromptGen: Automatically generate prompts using generative models
Yue Zhang, Hongliang Fei, Dingcheng Li, and Ping Li · 2022
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