2022

Deepfake Text Detection: Limitations and Opportunities

Pu, Jiameng, Sarwar, Zain, Abdullah, Sifat Muhammad et al.

Understand

Recent advances in generative models for language have enabled the creation of convincing synthetic text or deepfake text.

Prior work has demonstrated the potential for misuse of deepfake text to mislead content consumers.
Therefore, deepfake text detection, the task of discriminating between human and machine-generated text, is becoming increasingly critical.
Several defenses have been proposed for deepfake text detection.

Built on

D. H. Ackley, G. E. Hinton, and T. J. Sejnowski, “A Learning Algorithm for Boltzmann Machines,” Cognitive Science , vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 147–169, 1985
1985
Earlier work this paper cites.
D. E. Rumelhart, G. E. Hinton, and R. J. Williams, “Learning Internal Representations by Error Propagation,” Neurocomputing , 1987
1987
Earlier work this paper cites.
R. J. Williams and D. Zipser, “A Learning Algorithm for Continually Running Fully Recurrent Neural Networks,” Neural Computation , vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 270–280, 1989
1989
Earlier work this paper cites.
Y. Bengio, P. Simard, and P. Frasconi, “Learning Long-Term Dependencies with Gradient Descent is Difficult,” IEEE trans. neural netw. , vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 157–166, 1994
1994
Earlier work this paper cites.
T. Landauer and S. Dumais, “A Solution to Plato’s Problem: The Latent Semantic Analysis Theory of Acquisition, Induction, and Representation of Knowledge.” Psychological Review , vol. 104, no. 2, p. 211, 1997
1997
Earlier work this paper cites.
S. Hochreiter, “The Vanishing Gradient Problem During Learning Recurrent Neural Nets and Problem Solutions,” Int. J. Uncertain. Fuzziness Knowledge-Based Syst. , vol. 6, no. 02, pp. 107–116, 1998
1998
Earlier work this paper cites.
K. Papineni, S. Roukos, T. Ward, and W.-J. Zhu, “BLEU: a Method for Automatic Evaluation of Machine Translation,” in Proc. of ACL , 2002
2002
Earlier work this paper cites.
G. Doddington, “Automatic Evaluation of Machine Translation Quality Using N-gram Co-Occurrence Statistics,” in Proc. of ICHLT , 2002
2002
Earlier work this paper cites.
C.-Y. Lin, “ROUGE: A Package for Automatic Evaluation of Summaries,” in Proc. of ACL , 2004
2004
Earlier work this paper cites.
S. Banerjee and A. Lavie, “METEOR: An Automatic Metric for MT Evaluation with Improved Correlation with Human Judgments,” in Proc. of ACL Workshop , 2005
2005
Earlier work this paper cites.
F. Pedregosa et al., “Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python,” JMLR , vol. 12, pp. 2825–2830, 2011
2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
“GridSearchCV in ScikitLearn,” https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.model_selection.GridSearchCV.html , 2011
2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Logistic Regression Classifier in ScikitLearn,” https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression.html , 2011
2011
Earlier work this paper cites.
A. Graves, “Long Short-Term Memory,” Springer , pp. 37–45, 2012
2012
Earlier work this paper cites.
V. Rus and M. Lintean, “An Optimal Assessment of Natural Language Student Input Using Word-to-Word Similarity Metrics,” in Proc. of ITS , 2012
2012
Earlier work this paper cites.
T. Mikolov, K. Chen, G. Corrado, and J. Dean, “Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space,” in Proc. of ICLR Workshop , 2013
2013
Earlier work this paper cites.
J. Pennington, R. Socher, and C. D. Manning, “GloVe: Global Vectors for Word Representation,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2014
2014
Earlier work this paper cites.
D. Bahdanau, K. Cho, and Y. Bengio, “Neural Machine Translation by Jointly Learning to Align and Translate,” in Proc. of ICLR , 2015
2015
Earlier work this paper cites.
M. J. Kusner, Y. Sun, N. I. Kolkin, and K. Q. Weinberger, “From Word Embeddings to Document Distances,” in Proc. of ICML , 2015
2015
Earlier work this paper cites.
R. Sennrich, B. Haddow, and A. Birch, “Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units,” in Proc. of ACL , 2016
2016
Earlier work this paper cites.
P. Rajpurkar, J. Zhang, K. Lopyrev, and P. Liang, “SQuAD: 100,000+ Questions for Machine Comprehension of Text,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2016
2016
Earlier work this paper cites.
“Hugging Face: The AI community building the future,” https://huggingface.co/models , 2016
2016
Earlier work this paper cites.
N. Mrkšić, D. O. Séaghdha, B. Thomson, M. Gašić, L. Rojas-Barahona, P.-H. Su, D. Vandyke, T.-H. Wen, and S. Young, “Counter-fitting Word Vectors to Linguistic Constraints,” in Proc. of NAACL-HLT , 2016
2016
Earlier work this paper cites.
A. Vaswani, N. Shazeer, N. Parmar, J. Uszkoreit, L. Jones, A. N. Gomez, Ł. Kaiser, and I. Polosukhin, “Attention Is All You Need,” in Proc. of NeurIPS , 2017
2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
L. Leppänen, M. Munezero, M. Granroth-Wilding, and H. Toivonen, “Data-Driven News Generation for Automated Journalism,” in Proc. of INLG , 2017
2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
Y. Yao, B. Viswanath, J. Cryan, H. Zheng, and B. Y. Zhao, “Automated Crowdturfing Attacks and Defenses in Online Review Systems,” in Proc. of CCS , 2017
2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
S. Wiseman, S. M. Shieber, and A. M. Rush, “Challenges in Data-to-Document Generation,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2017
2017
Earlier work this paper cites.
G. Lai, Q. Xie, H. Liu, Y. Yang, and E. Hovy, “RACE: Large-scale ReAding Comprehension Dataset From Examinations,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2017
2017
Earlier work this paper cites.

Similar

B. Moseley and J. Wang, “Approximation Bounds for Hierarchical Clustering: Average Linkage, Bisecting K-means, and Local Search,” in Proc. of NeurIPS , 2017
2017
Cited alongside, same era.
R. Lowe, M. Noseworthy, I. V. Serban, N. Angelard-Gontier, Y. Bengio, and J. Pineau, “Towards an Automatic Turing Test: Learning to Evaluate Dialogue Responses,” in Proc. of ACL , 2017
2017
Cited alongside, same era.
A. Das and R. Verma, “Automated email Generation for Targeted Attacks using Natural Language,” in Proc. of TA-COS , 2018
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
A. Fan, M. Lewis, and Y. Dauphin, “Hierarchical Neural Story Generation,” in Proc. of ACL , 2018
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
A. Wang, A. Singh, J. Michael, F. Hill, O. Levy, and S. Bowman, “GLUE: A Multi-Task Benchmark and Analysis Platform for Natural Language Understanding,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2018
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
J. Howard and S. Ruder, “Universal Language Model Fine-tuning for Text Classification,” in Proc. of ACL , 2018
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
D. Cer, Y. Yang, S.-y. Kong, N. Hua, N. Limtiaco, R. S. John, N. Constant, M. Guajardo-Céspedes, S. Yuan, C. Tar et al. , “Universal Sentence Encoder,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/1803.11175 , 2018
Original
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Y. Li, M.-C. Chang, and S. Lyu, “In Ictu Oculi: Exposing AI Created Fake Videos by Detecting Eye Blinking,” IEEE WIFS , 2018
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
Y. Li and S. Lyu, “Exposing DeepFake Videos By Detecting Face Warping Artifacts,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/1811.00656 , 2018
Original
2018
Cited alongside, same era.
A. Radford, J. Wu, R. Child, D. Luan, D. Amodei, I. Sutskever et al. , “Language Models are Unsupervised Multitask Learners,” OpenAI blog , 2019
2019
Cited alongside, same era.
H. Zhang, J. Xu, and J. Wang, “Pretraining-Based Natural Language Generation for Text Summarization,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/1902.09243 , 2019
Original
2019
Cited alongside, same era.
R. Zellers, A. Holtzman, H. Rashkin, Y. Bisk, A. Farhadi, F. Roesner, and Y. Choi, “Defending Against Neural Fake News,” in Proc. of NeurIPS , 2019
2019
Cited alongside, same era.

Then

J. X. Morris, E. Lifland, J. Y. Yoo, J. Grigsby, D. Jin, and Y. Qi, “TextAttack: A Framework for Adversarial Attacks, Data Augmentation, and Adversarial Training in NLP,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/2005.05909 , 2020
Original
2020
Later among the works it cites.
S. Chen, N. Carlini, and D. Wagner, “Stateful Detection of Black-Box Adversarial Attacks,” in Proc. of ACM AISec , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
H. Li, S. Shan, E. Wenger, J. Zhang, H. Zheng, and B. Y. Zhao, “Blacklight: Defending Black-Box Adversarial Attacks on Deep Neural Networks,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/2006.14042 , 2020
Original
2020
Later among the works it cites.
D. Jin, Z. Jin, J. T. Zhou, and P. Szolovits, “Is BERT Really Robust? A Strong Baseline for Natural Language Attack on Text Classification and Entailment,” in Proc. of AAAI , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
L. Li, R. Ma, Q. Guo, X. Xue, and X. Qiu, “BERT-ATTACK: Adversarial Attack Against BERT Using BERT,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
W. Zhu and S. Bhat, “GRUEN for Evaluating Linguistic Quality of Generated Text,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
“AI-Writer text generation service,” http://ai-writer.com/ , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
“Article Forge: Get HIGH QUALITY Content In 60 Seconds,” https://www.articleforge.com/ , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
C. Raffel, N. Shazeer, A. Roberts, K. Lee, S. Narang, M. Matena, Y. Zhou, W. Li, and P. J. Liu, “Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer,” JMLR , vol. 21, pp. 1–67, 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
“Kafkai: AI Writer & AI Content Generator,” https://kafkai.com/ , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
W. D. Heaven, “A GPT-3 bot posted comments on Reddit for a week and no one noticed (MIT Technology Review),” https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/10/08/1009845/a-gpt-3-bot-posted-comments-on-reddit-for-a-week-and-no-one-noticed/ , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
T. Zhang, F. Wu, A. Katiyar, K. Q. Weinberger, and Y. Artzi, “Revisiting Few-sample BERT Fine-tuning,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/2006.05987 , 2020
Original
2020
Later among the works it cites.
I. Yamada, A. Asai, J. Sakuma, H. Shindo, H. Takeda, Y. Takefuji, and Y. Matsumoto, “Wikipedia2Vec: An Efficient Toolkit for Learning and Visualizing the Embeddings of Words and Entities from Wikipedia,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
J. Frank, T. Eisenhofer, L. Schönherr, A. Fischer, D. Kolossa, and T. Holz, “Leveraging Frequency Analysis for Deep Fake Image Recognition,” in Proc. of ICML , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
S.-Y. Wang, O. Wang, R. Zhang, A. Owens, and A. A. Efros, “CNN-generated images are surprisingly easy to spot… for now,” in Proc. of CVPR , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
N. Carlini and H. Farid, “Evading Deepfake-Image Detectors With White- and Black-Box Attacks,” in Proc. of CVPR , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
A. Gandhi and S. Jain, “Adversarial Perturbations Fool Deepfake Detectors,” in Proc. of IJCNN , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
U. A. Ciftci, I. Demir, and L. Yin, “FakeCatcher: Detection of Synthetic Portrait Videos using Biological Signals,” IEEE TPAMI , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
T. Jung, S. Kim, and K. Kim, “DeepVision: Deepfakes Detection Using Human Eye Blinking Pattern,” IEEE Access , vol. 8, pp. 83 144–83 154, 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
L. Huang, Z. Ye, J. Qin, L. Lin, and X. Liang, “GRADE: Automatic Graph-Enhanced Coherence Metric for Evaluating Open-Domain Dialogue Systems,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
S. Mehri and M. Eskenazi, “USR: An Unsupervised and Reference Free Evaluation Metric for Dialog Generation,” in Proc. of ACL , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
Z. Lan, M. Chen, S. Goodman, K. Gimpel, P. Sharma, and R. Soricut, “ALBERT: A Lite BERT for Self-supervised Learning of Language Representations,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/1909.11942 , 2020
Original
2020
Later among the works it cites.
D. I. Adelani, H. Mai, F. Fang, H. H. Nguyen, J. Yamagishi, and I. Echizen, “Generating Sentiment-Preserving Fake Online Reviews Using Neural Language Models and Their Human- and Machine-Based Detection,” in Proc. of AINA , 2020
2020
Later among the works it cites.
L. Yuan, X. Zheng, Y. Zhou, C.-J. Hsieh, and K.-W. Chang, “On the Transferability of Adversarial Attacks against Neural Text Classifier,” in Proc. of EMNLP , 2021
2021
Later among the works it cites.
X. Cao and N. Z. Gong, “Understanding the Security of Deepfake Detection,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/2107.02045 , 2021
Original
2021
Later among the works it cites.
Y. Dou, M. Forbes, R. Koncel-Kedziorski, N. A. Smith, and Y. Choi, “Is GPT-3 Text Indistinguishable from Human Text? Scarecrow: A Framework for Scrutinizing Machine Text,” in Proc. of CoRR abs/2107.01294 , 2021
Original
2021
Later among the works it cites.
T. Fagni, F. Falchi, M. Gambini, A. Martella, and M. Tesconi, “TweepFake: About detecting deepfake tweets,” PLoS ONE , vol. 16, no. 5, p. e0251415, 2021
2021
Later among the works it cites.
J. Byun, H. Go, and C. Kim, “On the Effectiveness of Small Input Noise for Defending Against Query-based Black-Box Attacks,” in Proc. of WACV , 2022
2022
Closest in time.

Beyond the bibliography

alphaXiv searches the wider corpus for related work and actual follow-ups.

Open on alphaXiv

alphaXiv is searching for related work…

Reading the bibliography…